Cylinder seals were stone cylinders with inscriptions used for identifying ownership. They were developed by the ancient Sumerians and used mainly by other Mesopotamian peoples from about 3200 BC to the fourth century BC. These seals were also occasionally used in regions like Asia Minor (the Hittite Empire) and Persia. After 700 BC, stamp seals replaced cylinder seals. In Palestine, stamp seals were common in biblical times.
Early cylinder seals had unique scenes that signified ownership. A cylinder seal was usually less than an inch (2.5 centimeters) long and had a hole drilled through it so it could be worn around the neck or waist. By 2700 BC, seals also had a cuneiform inscription of the owner’s name and title. During the Akkadian period (2360–2180 BC), they also indicated professions. Early in the second millennium BC, owners identified themselves as servants of particular gods. By the mid-second millennium, prayers were commonly added.
In the fourth and third millennia BC, cylinder seals were mainly used to show ownership of property by rolling the seal across wet clay on jars or packages. They were also used to identify and seal clay tablet documents. Initially, only kings and top officials used them, but by the second millennium BC, many aristocrats had them. Cylinder seals were often buried with their owners; nearly 15,000 have been found. These seals are important for studying the art, economy, sociology, and religion of Mesopotamia and nearby regions.