A slave was a person who was owned as property by another person. Slavery was the system that created this relationship between slave owners and slaves.
In ancient times, slavery was common throughout the Near East. though these societies did not depend on slavery for their economy. By the time of the Roman Empire, when the early Christians lived, slavery had become very widespread. One out of every two people was a slave.
How Did People Become Slaves?
From at least 3000 BC, most slaves were people who had been captured during wars (Genesis 14:21; Numbers 31:9; Deuteronomy 20:14; Judges 5:30; 1 Samuel 4:9; 2 Kings 5:2; 2 Chronicles 28:8). These captives would become the property of those who captured them.
People could buy slaves locally from other slave owners. They could also buy them from foreign merchants who traveled around selling slaves, along with cloth, bronze items, and other goods (Joel 3:4–8). This is how Joseph's brothers sold him to traveling merchants (called Ishmaelites or Midianites), who then sold him to an Egyptian (Genesis 37:36; 39:1).
Debt was the main reason many families became slaves. If someone could not pay what they owed, their entire family could be forced to become slaves (2 Kings 4:1; Nehemiah 5:5–8). Section 117 of the law code of Hammurabi (an ancient set of laws) said a family could not be kept as slaves for more than three years. The Hebrew law allowed slave owners to keep people for up to six years (Deuteronomy 15:18).
Some people chose to become slaves to escape extreme poverty and hunger (Leviticus 25:47–48). This was called voluntary slavery and was common in ancient times.
It was a crime to kidnap and sell a person into slavery. The brothers of Joseph were guilty of this crime (Genesis 37:27–28). Both the law code of Hammurabi (Section 14) and the law of Moses (see Exodus 21:11; Deuteronomy 24:7) said people who committed this crime should be put to death.
Life as a Slave
In Sumerian society (one of the earliest civilizations), slaves had certain rights. They could borrow money and do business. A slave usually cost less than a strong donkey, which meant slaves could sometimes save enough money to buy their freedom.
Most slaves worked hard on farms or in homes doing difficult daily tasks. However, some skilled slaves were given important jobs managing their owner's household.
The laws said slaves should be freed after a certain time, but owners did not always follow these rules. Under Hebrew law, a Hebrew person who became a slave by choice would be freed in the next jubilee year (a special year that came every 50 years). The law said that no Hebrew was supposed to remain a slave for their whole life (Exodus 21:2; Leviticus 25:10–13; Deuteronomy 15:12–14).
The Israelites created laws to protect slaves from cruel treatment by their owners or overseers. If an owner injured a slave permanently, the law required that the slave be set free (Exodus 21:26–27). Hebrew slaves were not common in Israelite households. When they did work in homes, they often worked in the fields alongside their owners. Many household slaves had better living conditions than the poorest free people, who often faced hunger and extreme poverty.
Slavery in Greek and Roman Times
During Greek and Roman times, the number of slaves grew very large. Household slaves (those who worked in people's homes) were usually treated better than other slaves. Many became trusted servants and close advisors to their owners. Some slaves were even allowed to start businesses, which brought money to both themselves and their owners.
Special Cases of Slavery
Ancient records from the cities of Ur and Nuzi, along with the book of Genesis, show that when a wife could not have children, her female slave might have children for her husband (Genesis 16:2–4). According to the law, a Hebrew master could agree to marry a young female slave. He could also have his own son marry her. Or he could make her his concubine (a woman who lived with a man but had fewer rights than a wife). If later he rejected her, or if he did not fulfill his agreement, she would be released from slavery (Exodus 21:7–11).
The government required conquered people to perform forced labor (2 Samuel 12:31; 1 Kings 9:15, 21–23). Even the Israelites themselves had to do forced labor in Lebanon (1 Kings 5:13–18). Some captured people, like the Midianites and Gibeonites, were made to work at the temple (Numbers 31:28–30, 47; Joshua 9:23–25). This practice continued through the time of Kings David and Solomon (Ezra 2:58; 8:20). Foreign slaves helped repair the walls of Jerusalem (Nehemiah 3:26, 31).
Slavery in the New Testament
The New Testament indicates a shift in attitude toward slavery. The status of a slave became more like that of a servant. Slavery was becoming less common. Jesus and the apostles did not directly oppose slavery, but they gave instructions about it. They told slaves and servants to serve their masters faithfully. They also told masters to treat their slaves with kindness and fairness (Ephesians 6:9; Colossians 4:1; 1 Timothy 6:2; Philemon 1:16). Paul never preached against slavery. But, he wrote a letter to try and free one slave named Onesimus. This is why Paul wrote the letter to Philemon (see the discussion on this in Letter to Philemon).