The sun is one of the great lights created by God to govern the day (Genesis 1:14–15). In biblical times, a new day began with the setting of the sun, and daily sacrifices were tied to its position. The first burnt offering was given at sunrise (Exodus 29:39; Numbers 28:4). In rabbinic Judaism, daylight hours varied with the seasons. They depended on the solar cycle.
The Israelite calendar was lunar. But, the timing of major festivals in spring (Passover) and fall (Trumpets, Atonement, Tabernacles) shows they also considered the solar year. The Gezer calendar, which aligns with farming, is based on the solar year. The Jewish calendar has a 19-year cycle. It adds extra months in seven of those years to align the lunar and solar cycles. The Bible does not mention this system. Scholars believe the 13th month was a later addition. Aramaic documents from the Jewish colony at Elephantine show that this 19-year cycle was used as early as the fifth century BC. The kingdoms of Judah and Israel likely used a similar system, though no records survive.
Rabbinic Judaism recognizes four seasons. The Old Testament mentions only two: "seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter" (Genesis 8:22).
The four seasons are tied to the sun's movement:
Fall (called setav, a word originally meaning "rainy season" or "rain"; Song of Solomon 2:11) begins with the autumn equinox (September 21)
Winter (horeph) starts with the winter solstice (around December 22)
Spring (aviv) begins with the spring equinox (March 21)
Summer (qayits) starts with the summer solstice (June 22)
A temple found at Beersheba, dating to 125 BC, was aligned with the sunrise at the summer solstice. A similar temple at Lachish is oriented toward the winter solstice. The Arad temple from monarchical times faced almost due east. It likely aligned with the equinox sunrise, as did the Jerusalem temple.
In Hebrew poetry, the sun is often used as a powerful image. It is described as:
Having a dwelling place (Habakkuk 3:11)
Coming out of a tent like a bridegroom (Psalm 19:4–5)
The sun symbolizes:
Constancy (Psalm 72:5, 17)
The law (Psalm 19:7)
God's presence (Psalm 84:11)
Beauty (Song of Solomon 6:10)
In Ecclesiastes, life on earth is often described as happening "under the sun" (Ecclesiastes 1:3, 9, 14; 2:11).
In times of chaos and divine wrath, the Bible describes the sun as darkening (Isaiah 13:10; Ezekiel 32:7; Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Zephaniah 1:15; Matthew 24:29; Revelation 8:12). This imagery likely refers to an eclipse, an event that terrified ancient peoples. The sun turning pale might also refer to the effects of a "sirocco," where sandstorms and hazy clouds darken the sky. On the other hand, the day of the Lord’s victory is depicted as a time when the sun will shine seven times brighter than it does now (Isaiah 30:26).