The doctrine, based on the birth stories in Matthew 1 and Luke 1–2, says Jesus Christ was conceived by the holy spirit and born to the virgin Mary. The idea of the Incarnation (God becoming human) and Jesus's divine and human natures rely on this historical event. However, rationalists and literary critics argue that early Christians invented this miracle.
The Old Testament Prophecy
The King James Version of Isaiah 7:14 says a "virgin" will "be with child and will give birth to a son...Immanuel." Matthew 1:22–23 clearly states that this was fulfilled with Jesus's birth. This passage has sparked much debate, especially after the Revised Standard Version changed "virgin" to "young woman." This change was due to the ambiguity of the term in the original manuscripts. The Hebrew word ‘almah generally refers to a young girl who has reached puberty and is of marriageable age. Another Hebrew word, bethulah, specifically means a woman who is a virgin. However, the Septuagint translators rendered ‘almah as parthenos, which does mean a virgin.
These linguistic considerations lead to four interpretations:
The “virgin” (Isaiah 7:14) refers to Ahaz’s new wife, and the son is Hezekiah. However, Hezekiah was nine years old when Ahaz began to reign. Therefore, this prophecy must refer to the future.
She was Isaiah’s wife, and their son was Maher-shalal-hash-baz. Many scholars support this interpretation because the definite article with ‘almah suggests that “the woman” was known to Isaiah and Ahaz. Additionally, Isaiah 7:14–16 seems to indicate that the prophecy was to be fulfilled during Isaiah’s time. The challenge is that Isaiah’s wife already had a son, so she could not be called ‘almah.
The prophecy is entirely about the Messiah. This is the traditional evangelical view. It is based on the child's name, Immanuel, meaning "God with us," and the references (Isaiah 9:6–7; 11:1–5), which indicate a divine person.
Many evangelicals have recently chosen a fourth interpretation. This view accepts both the historical fulfillment in Isaiah's time and the future fulfillment. It considers the historical fulfillment in Isaiah 7:15–16 and sees the future fulfillment through the virgin birth of Jesus, as shown in Matthew 1:22–23.
The Gospel Records
Neither Mark nor John describes the birth of Christ; only Matthew and Luke do. Both agree that Mary, a "virgin," conceived by the holy spirit and gave birth to Jesus. Matthew's account is simpler and more direct, attributing Jesus's birth to divine origins and emphasizing its importance. Jesus is called the "Christ [or Messiah]," the son of David (Matthew 1:1), who comes to start God's kingdom. This is shown by fulfilling Isaiah's prophecy (Matthew 1:22–23) and by his unique conception (1:18–20). Jesus is "God with us," here to "save His people from their sins" (Matthew 1:21). The scene where Joseph plans to quietly divorce Mary highlights the miraculous conception.
Luke told the Nativity story from Mary's perspective. The angel Gabriel visited her and announced she would give birth to the Messiah (Luke 1:26–38). She conceived miraculously by the holy spirit, as foretold by Gabriel: “The Holy Spirit will come upon you...So the Holy One to be born will be called the Son of God.” (Luke 1:35). Luke portrayed Mary as devoutly obedient to God's purposes.
Theological Significance for the Church
From the start of the church, the belief in the virgin birth was key to understanding Christ's divine nature. Early church leaders emphasized this event as proof of Jesus's incarnation and divinity. Justin Martyr and Ignatius defended the virgin birth against critics in the early second century, showing it was already a well-established belief. Over the next three centuries, debates about the virgin birth were significant. Gnostics like Marcion argued that Christ came directly from heaven and was never truly human. Meanwhile, groups like the Arians, who denied Jesus's divinity, also rejected the virgin birth, claiming Jesus was "adopted" as God's Son at his baptism. The Council of Nicaea in AD 325 confirmed Jesus was truly God, and the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451 declared Jesus was both human and divine, a "hypostatic union" of true natures. The Apostles’ Creed of the fifth century summarizes this by stating, “I believe in … Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, conceived of the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary.” Most creeds link the virgin birth to Jesus’s sinlessness, as his divine nature is the source of his sinlessness.
From the beginning, as shown in Matthew and Luke and by early church writers, the virgin birth has been a key church doctrine. It symbolizes Jesus's dual nature: born of the holy spirit and a woman, he is both God and man.