A mill is made up of two circular stones (called millstones) used to grind grain into flour. Ancient art and Middle Eastern sites show millstone grain grinding. These date to the Neolithic period (around 8300–4500 BC). The earliest mills were handmills. The technology improved over time. But, the basic principle remained the same. A lower stone held the grain. An upper stone, moved across the lower stone, ground the grain into flour. In Hebrew, the word for "mill" refers to these two essential parts.
Types of Mills
The earliest type of mill was the saddle quern. It consisted of a rough base stone, which was slightly concave, and a convex rubbing stone. The base stone ranged from 45.7 to 76.2 centimeters (18 to 30 inches) across, with one end thicker than the other. In Hebrew, it was called the “underneath portion” or "lower millstone" (Job 41:24). The upper stone, known as the “rider portion” or "upper millstone" (Judges 9:53; 2 Samuel 11:21), was between 15.2 to 38.1 centimeters (6 and 15 inches) long. It was flat on one side and slightly rounded on the other, making it easy to hold in the hand. To grind the grain, people would push the upper stone back and forth over the grain on the lower stone. Only a small amount of grain could be ground at one time using this method (Genesis 18:6).
A later type of handmill used two round stones. The lower stone could be rounded either inwards or outwards on top, while the upper stone was shaped to fit over it. Some of these mills had a funnel-shaped hole in the center of the top stone for pouring in grain. A wooden peg on the edge of the upper stone allowed it to be turned, crushing the grain, which then escaped along the edges. Black basalt was often used because its rough, gritty surface provided good cutting edges. This type of mill could be operated by one person, though sometimes two people were needed (Matthew 24:41).
The handmill was so essential for daily life that it was forbidden by law to take a person’s millstone as a pledge for a debt. This law protected families from losing their means of making flour for bread (Deuteronomy 24:6). The stones were heavy enough to kill a person if thrown on their head, as happened to Abimelech (Judges 9:53; compare 2 Samuel 11:21).
Grinding Grain
Grinding grain was usually the job of servants (Exodus 11:5) or women (Isaiah 47:2). The noise of grinding could be heard daily in every village in Palestine. If that sound stopped, it meant the village was deserted (Jeremiah 25:10).
Community Mills
Animals also powered larger community mills. A large, heavy stone, possibly 1.2 to 1.5 meters (four to five feet) in diameter, was rolled on its edge using a pole through its center. The pole rotated around a vertical post, similar to how some mills in Eastern lands still operate today. Samson was likely forced to use a mill of this type to grind grain for the Philistines (Judges 16:21).