The things the body needs to stay alive, and the ways to make them ready to eat. In Bible times, people ate:
Food was also given as sacrifices or given as gifts. Finding enough food was a constant worry because it was often limited by:
Droughts (2 Kings 4:38; Jeremiah 14:1, 4–6; Haggai 1:11)
Hail (Haggai 2:17)
War (2 Kings 6:25)
There was more food in Palestine, called a “land flowing with milk and honey,” than in other parts of the Near East. However, farming in shallow soil made crops dependent on regular rainfall. Egyptian crops were more reliable because the Nile was a dependable source of water.
Food shortages were seen as warnings or punishment from God (Lamentations 4:9, 11; Amos 4:6–9). They were meant to remind people that life is more than food and they must keep their faith in hard times (Deuteronomy 8:3; Habakkuk 3:17–18).
The main foods that the early Israelites ate when they traveled with their herds were milk and dairy products like cheese. As people settled in one place, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. They would sometimes grow grain for a season, harvest it, and then move their flocks to other pastures. Religious sacrifices and festivals were times to be somber but also to joyfully feast. Victories were celebrated with banquets and feasting on the food taken from the camp of the defeated enemy.
Preview
- Dairy Products
- Grain Crops
- Animal Products
- Insects and Their Food Products
- Vegetables and Seasoning
- Fruits, Nuts, and Wine
Dairy Products
Milk and its by-products were important to the Israelite diet (see Judges 4:19). Goat’s milk was most common, but they also used milk from camels, cows, and sheep (Genesis 32:15; Deuteronomy 32:14; Proverbs 27:27).
Fresh milk could not be kept fresh in the hot Palestinian weather, so it was turned into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into goatskins, where it would sour and thicken. The unclean condition of the used skins and the movement as it was transported would transform it. The movement of the pouch (usually a cow’s stomach, with the enzyme rennin, which is used in cheese making) produced curds. Curds are mentioned as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his special guests (Genesis 18:8).
The Hebrew word for curds (chena) is also translated “butter” (Job 10:10). This butter would be similar in consistency to yogurt without the liquid. When squeezed and rolled into small balls, it lasted for a long time regardless of climate. Thus, these curds were valuable for long journeys.
Grain Crops
Bread is the most frequently mentioned food in the Bible. The term refers to food prepared from grain. In biblical times, bread could be made from several grains. Wheat, barley, and spelt were grown in Egypt (Exodus 9:31–32).
An Egyptian physician, Sinuhe, wrote in the mid-20th century BC that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria, and likely served with every meal. This bread was probably a flat cake made from barley or a lesser form of wheat because these were the two crops that Sinuhe saw. Wheat was the most expensive grain. Fine wheat flour was a luxury for the rich (Genesis 18:6; Ezra 16:13, 19). Later, wheat became a valuable export from Tyre to the Mediterranean.
Barley could be grown in poor soil and tolerate drought. So, it was a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley was harvested earlier than wheat. Barley bread (Judges 7:13; 2 Kings 4:42) and barley cakes (Ezra 4:12) were eaten by the poor laborers. Jesus multiplied a boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and fed five thousand (John 6:9–13).
Two other grains were planted around the edges of fields and used when food was scarce:
Millet: a small grain that grows on short stalks less than 0.6 meters (two feet) tall
Spelt: a type of wheat
A primitive way to process grain was to rub them between the hands to separate the kernels like Jesus and his disciples did (Luke 6:1). Doing this on the Sabbath (the day of rest) was considered work and was forbidden.
Parching (roasting the grain lightly in a pan) was another easy preparation method (Joshua 5:11; 1 Samuel 17:17). It made a quick meal for laborers or kings (Ruth 2:14; 1 Samuel 25:18; 2 Samuel 17:28). Parched corn was good for journeys.
Making bread was hard work. In ancient Egypt (around 2900 BC), flour was ground using mortars, pestles, and simple mills. To use these mills, one would need to kneel. The result was a coarse meal that was filled with small pieces of husk.
Water was added to the flour, and the result was kneaded into a dough. This dough could be made into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread (Genesis 19:3). The flat cakes would be baked on hot stones in ovens. Adding leaven made a lighter dough. Leaven was a piece of dough left over from an earlier batch that would ferment before being used. Flour meal was also mixed with lentil porridge to stretch the food supply.
Animal Products
Meat became part of the diet after Noah's time (Genesis 9:3). However, animals were valuable, so only the wealthy could afford to eat them. Peasants had a simple diet, while the rich ate meat, delicacies, and imported commodities. Meat was a luxury the poor rarely enjoyed. The exception was special occasions like the Passover or sacrifices (Exodus 12:8). It was expensive to slaughter an animal that produced food like milk, curds, and cheese. However, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed for an honored guest (2 Samuel 12:2–4).
Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen were the main source of meat, but venison was popular with the rich. When Jacob deceived Isaac, he offered his father kid’s meat and wild game (Genesis 27:3, 9, 19). Ox or fatted calves were reserved for festive occasions (Matthew 22:4).
Meat sacrifices were regulated in Leviticus and Deuteronomy. The Law made slaughtering an animal and its child on the same day illegal (Leviticus 22:28). It also made cooking a baby goat in its mother’s milk illegal (Deuteronomy 14:21). Mosaic law forbids eating blood in any form. Animal blood was believed to be the source of life. Priests offered it as a sacrifice to God to make up for sin (Leviticus 17:11).
Pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were all considered unclean and were forbidden to eat (Leviticus 11:4–8).
Meat was cooked by boiling or stewing. Meat would be roasted on special feasts or sacrificial rituals. Meat might also be roasted for members of the royal palace or a king’s special guests.
Many people enjoyed hunting, but wild game was only a minor part of their diet. Wild animals that lived in Palestine were:
Roebuck
Wild goat
Pheasants
Turtledoves
Pigeons
Quails
Partridges (Genesis 15:9; Exodus 16:13)
Goose and marsh ducks were popular in Egypt. Chickens were eaten in the Persian period (2 Esdras 1:30). In Rome, eggs and omelettes were popular. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy are probably wild birds’ eggs (Deuteronomy 22:6–7; compare Isaiah 10:14).
Fish was abundant in the Jordan, and fishing was common on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of Christ. In Roman times, fish was readily available from the Mediterranean coast. Before then, the supply of fish depended on what nation controlled the coastline. After the exilic period, Jerusalem was supplied with fish from Tyr, and it was sold near the Fish Gate (Nehemiah 3:3). Only fish with fins and scales were acceptable to eat (Leviticus 11:9–12).
In New Testament times, these laws about food were eliminated. In the Gospel of Mark, Jesus criticized Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean (Mark 7:19). As Christianity spread, people were still concerned about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question is discussed in Corinthians. The apostle Paul argued that even though the meat was acceptable, no one should upset another Christian who had a problem with it.
Insects and Their Food Products
People in ancient Palestine found honey made by wild bees in nature. While they did not raise bees themselves, their neighbors in Egypt did have farms where they raised bees for honey.
The honeycomb is mentioned in 1 Samuel 14:27 and Song of Songs 5:1. Liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. Honey was found in crevices of rocks and on trees (Deuteronomy 32:13). It was used to sweeten food. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to the Lord (Leviticus 2:11), honey was a delicacy. In the 15th century BC, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.
Locusts began to be eaten out of desperation after they had destroyed crops. They are one of the few insects that are allowed to be eaten (Leviticus 11:22). Locusts were fried in flour or honey, or were preserved by being dried. John the Baptist ate locusts and wild honey in the wilderness (Matthew 3:4; Mark 1:6). Although locusts contain little protein, they are rich in fat and minerals.
Vegetables and Seasoning
When the Israelites were wandering in the Sinai wilderness, they missed the flavorful vegetables from Egypt. They mentioned:
Cucumbers
Melons (possibly watermelons)
Leeks
Onions
Many of these vegetables would be grown later in Palestine (particularly in Gaza). When cucumbers were first grown, they were luxury items and were protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens (Isaiah 1:8).
Beans, lentils, and parched grain were brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim (2 Samuel 17:28). Lentils were grown in Egypt from the 13th century BC and were popular in Israel. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34.
In times of hunger, carob tree husks could be used for food. These are craved by the prodigal son (Luke 15:16). Many kinds of green herbs could be eaten by the poor when needed (Proverbs 15:17). In extreme cases, mallow and juniper roots could be eaten. In Elisha’s time, a group of prophets at Gilgal made a stew of wild vegetables, but they accidentally added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha helped by adding flour to the pot (2 Kings 4:38–41). There is no record of which bitter herbs were used in the Passover offering (Exodus 12:8; Numbers 9:11), but mint and cumin were probably included. Dill, cumin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs (Matthew 23:23; Luke 11:42).
Seasonings added flavor to the typical Israelite diet. Salt from the Dead Sea area was an important seasoning and preservative. Salt was so important that sharing salt with a person at a meal meant sealing a covenant or pact (Numbers 18:19). In sacrifices, salt was part of meat and cereal offerings as it represented the sealing of God’s covenant with Israel (Leviticus 2:13; Ezekiel 43:24).
The mustard tree, grown for its oil, grew from a small seed to up to 15 feet (4.5 meters) (Matthew 13:31–32). Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also common (Exodus 16:31; Numbers 11:7). The most popular spice, other than salt, was garlic. Vinegar was used for flavoring and preserving. Many seeds and plants were found in Egyptian tombs from the 18th dynasty. It was common for people to use seasoning in the ancient world.
Fruits, Nuts, and Wine
Olive trees grew often in Palestine and were an excellent source of food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could give enough to a family for a whole year. Some green olives were pickled and eaten with bread. But, the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best olive oil was saved for sacrifices.
Oil was taken from the finest olives by crushing them with a stone mortar and pestle. Pickers would often collect the olives from trees with long poles and baskets. The oil was squeezed from them in a vat, probably the same one used for grapes (Micah 6:15), which was collected four weeks later.
An oil mill needed two people to turn a heavy upper grinding stone. As the oil dripped down, it was collected in a stone vat and settled and purified. When ready, the oil was stored in skins or jars.
Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They needed little work and yielded two or three crops per year. The second, in the late summer, was the most abundant. The first figs of the season were a great delicacy (Isaiah 28:4; Micah 7:1). The prophet Hosea compared the Israelites to the first yield of the fig tree (Hosea 9:10). Jeremiah also compared the exiles to the first figs, while the people still in the land were like bad figs, fit for destruction (Jeremiah 24:1–10).
Figs could be eaten fresh from the trees, but some were made into cakes for traveling (1 Samuel 25:18; 30:12; 1 Chronicles 12:40). Figs were used as medicine to soothe wounds (2 Kings 20:7; Isaiah 38:21). Sycamore trees produced small fruits, similar to figs, that were eaten by the poor. Before it was harvested, the fruit would be cut, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos cut sycamore fruit before he was called by God (Amos 7:14).
The date palm was also pressed into flat cakes for travelers. The Bible does not reference this (see Judges 4:5; Psalm 92:12; Joel 1:12; John 12:13).
Another popular fruit was the pomegranate. It was eaten whole, or the seeds were pressed into a drink. The pomegranate was one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies (Exodus 28:33). It was also an exotic drink (Song of Solomon 8:2). The “apple” mentioned in Scripture was likely an apricot or quince (Proverbs 25:11; Song of Solomon 2:5). Nuts were used for flavor in cooking. Almonds and pistachios were given by Jacob to ransom his sons (Genesis 43:11).
Grapes were popular in the early Bronze Age. Grapes were:
Eaten from the vine
Dried as raisins (Numbers 6:3; 1 Samuel 25:18)
Pressed
Drunk as new wine
Fermented into alcohol
The cup-bearer in ancient royal courts provided grape juice or wine to the king, his family, and guests (Genesis 40:9–13).
Grape juice provided vinegar when the wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used for flavoring and preserving. When mixed with water, it made a refreshing drink for workers. Jelly was made by boiling grapes until they thickened. This syrup was used as a sweetener.
Wine was a common drink in antiquity. It could be mixed with water or mixed with spices or honey to make a mulled wine (Song of Solomon 8:2; Isaiah 5:22). The Hebrew word for “banquet” or “feast” literally means “drinking.” This suggests a lot about the nature of feasts. A level of drunkenness was normal at festivals or banquets (Genesis 43:34; Judges 9:13; Luke 5:34).
Wine was made in a similar way to olive oil. Clusters of grapes were taken from the vine and crushed by workers. The juice ran into a lower vat, where it fermented. The wine settled so debris could be removed. In six weeks, the wine was ready to drink or store.