The Assumption of Moses is a Jewish legend that tells how Moses was taken up into heaven, either in body or in spirit. The word assumption comes from a Latin word meaning “to take up” or “to take to oneself.” In ancient writings, it refers to a person being taken up by God into heaven.
The author probably wrote the Assumption of Moses between AD 7 and 30. The writing may combine two earlier works and borrows heavily from the book of Deuteronomy. The work was probably intended to give Moses a miraculous end of life similar to that of the prophet Elijah. However, this legend contradicts the Old Testament account of the death of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:48–50; 34:5–7).
The Lost Assumption of Moses
Many scholars believe there was once another apocryphal book (a book not included in the Bible) about the assumption of Moses that has since been lost. Three facts support this idea:
Early lists of apocryphal writings mention a book with this title.
Several early church fathers refer to it.
A few Greek fragments have survived.
The Story of Moses's Burial
The following events appeared in the work. God sent the archangel Michael to bury Moses's body. Satan opposed the burial because he claimed authority over all physical matter and because Moses was a murderer. Michael opposed Satan's claims and accused him of tempting Eve in the Garden of Eden.
Joshua and Caleb witnessed Moses's unusual assumption or ascension. They saw Moses's dead body buried in the mountain, and at the same time, they also saw Moses himself in the company of the angels. So, Moses's body died, but his spirit did not.
Connection to the Letter of Jude
Many have stated that the Letter of Jude quotes the Assumption of Moses in verse 9, but this cannot be proven. The parts of the book that are needed to verify this are lost. Church fathers like Clement of Alexandria (died AD 215) and Origen (lived around 185–254) thought the Assumption of Moses was the source for Jude 1:9. They had both works, but we only have Jude, so we cannot verify their conclusions. This question has become more complicated because there is now another work that is also called the Assumption of Moses. People often suppose Jude 1:9 is a quotation from that book, but it is not.
The Existing Assumption of Moses
This work may have been written during the life of Jesus. It claims to describe Moses's predictions to Joshua about the future of Israel. Like other apocryphal non-historical writings that claim to have been written by great Jewish leaders, it is pseudonymous (written under a false name).
In 1861, someone accidentally discovered it in the Ambrosian Library in Milan, Italy. The manuscript, from the fifth century AD, is a poor copy of a Latin translation. This Latin version might come from a Greek translation of a Hebrew original. The beginning and end are missing. There are many spelling mistakes, and there are no spaces between words. As a result, scholars have long debated the reading, interpretation, and translation of entire verses.
The first three lines of the manuscript are missing, so the original title is unknown. When it was discovered, many assumed it was the Assumption of Moses, a book that had been lost for a long time. Today, most scholars doubt this identification. Although the work is still called by this title, it is more likely the Testament of Moses, which appears in early lists of apocryphal writings. It is also possible that this work combines both the Testament and the Assumption of Moses traditions.
The book may mention Moses's assumption only once, in relation to his death (Assumption of Moses 10:12), but there is debate as to whether this is even the correct reading of the word in question. Since the book's ending is missing, we cannot know the content of the conclusion. We also cannot tell if this reference to Moses's assumption is original or added later by mistake or by an editor merging two different works. However, it is clear in the surviving text that Moses expected to die (1:15; 10:12–14) and Joshua was also sure that he would (11:4–8).
Moses Foretells Israel's History
The surviving text starts in the middle of a sentence and dates Moses's speech to 2,500 years after creation (Assumption of Moses 1:2–5). Moses is expecting to die and calls Joshua. He encourages him and tells him that God created the world for the Israelites. They will repent before the fulfillment of God's plan at the end of days (1:6–18).
Moses prophesies about the future of Israel. The people will receive the land of Canaan as their inheritance. Local leaders, chiefs (possibly judges), and kings will rule over them (Assumption of Moses 2:1–3). Later, the kingdom will be divided, and the people will worship idols (2:4–9). A king from the east (Nebuchadnezzar) will take two tribes into captivity for about 77 years. During this time, they will remember the warnings that Moses gave them (3:1–14; see Jeremiah 25:11–12; Deuteronomy 28:15–68; 30:15–20).
Someone (Daniel) will pray for their deliverance (see Daniel 9:4–19). God will convince a king (Cyrus) to let the Israelite exiles return home (Assumption of Moses 4:1–6; see Isaiah 45:1–6; Ezra 1:1–4). Some exiles will return to their appointed place (Jerusalem) and rebuild the walls. However, they will not be able to offer proper sacrifices (Assumption of Moses 4:7–8; contrast with Ezra 3:1–7). Others will stay in exile but will increase in number (4:9). This part of the book concludes the predictions about the Old Testament period and begins predictions about the intertestamental period, around 400 to 1 BC.
The book describes a time of widespread apostasy (a falling away from faith) during the Seleucid period, around 201–167 BC. It focuses especially on the priests and judges who became corrupt (Assumption of Moses 5:1–6). The book does not mention the Maccabees, who won political independence from Syria in 164 BC. Instead, it highlights the Hasmonean kings who made themselves both kings and high priests (Assumption of Moses 6:1).
Next, an arrogant king named Herod the Great (who ruled from 37 to 4 BC) will govern the people harshly (Assumption of Moses 6:2–7). After him, a powerful king from the west will conquer the land. He will take some people captive, crucify others, and burn part of the temple (6:8–9).
Persecution, Faithfulness, and Final Judgment
At this point, the predictions have reached the author’s own time. He can no longer describe past events as if Moses had predicted them, so he begins to imagine what might happen next. As a result, the words he places in Moses’s mouth become more general and uncertain, and some of them never come true.
The next rulers (possibly the Sadducees) are described as ungodly and unfaithful. They are gluttonous, deceitful, and concerned about ceremonial purity while living in luxury at the expense of the poor (Assumption of Moses 7:1–10). An unprecedented time of wrath would follow, when a great king would persecute the Jews, torturing, imprisoning, and even crucifying them for practicing circumcision (8:1–5). During this persecution, a man named Taxo, a Levite with seven sons, would remain true to God. He would choose to die rather than adopt Greek customs (8:1–7).
The next section is an apocalyptic poem made up of ten stanzas, each with three lines (Assumption of Moses 10:1–10). This is the only apocalyptic part of the book. In it, the Lord’s kingdom will appear, Satan will be destroyed, and the chief angel, Michael, will bring justice to Israel (10:1–2). The poem declares, "The Heavenly One will rise from His royal throne." There will be miracles and signs on earth and in the sky. Even the ocean will retreat all the way to the deep abyss (10:3–6).
The Most High, the eternal God, will appear and punish the gentiles, destroying their idols (Assumption of Moses 10:7). However, Israel will be happy and exalted, rejoicing to see her enemies in Gehenna (hell) and gratefully praising her creator (10:8–10). The composition ends with Moses mentioning his death and offering words of comfort to Joshua, but the end is incomplete.
When Was the Assumption of Moses Written?
The book was probably written after Herod died and after the Roman general Varus stopped a rebellion in Judea in 4 BC. It must also have been written before the Romans destroyed the temple in AD 70. The book predicts Herod's sons would not rule as long as their father had, who ruled for 34 years. This prediction may be based on the fact that one of Herod's sons, Archelaus, was removed from power after ruling for only 10 years (4 BC–AD 6). If this is correct, the author must have written the book after AD 6.
However, two other sons, Philip and Antipas, ruled longer than their father. Since it seems the author did not know this yet, the book must have been written within 34 years of Herod's death. This would mean the author wrote it before AD 30. So, the book was likely written between AD 6 and 30. This would also mean it reflects the way some Jews were thinking during the lifetime of Jesus.
Who Wrote the Assumption of Moses?
The author was evidently a Jew from Palestine. He probably did not belong to any of the major Jewish religious groups of his time. He disliked Roman rule (Assumption of Moses 8:1–10:10), but he did not support rebellion like the Zealots and those who came before them. His interest in the temple was not typical of the Essenes (2:8–9; 5:3; 6:9; 8:5). He condemned the lifestyle of the Sadducees (7:3–10), and his use of apocalyptic writing was probably unusual for a Pharisee (10:1–10).