A historic city that is sacred to Christians, Jews, and Muslims. It was the main city of ancient Palestine and is now a key city in modern Israel.
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What Does the Name "Jerusalem" Mean?
Where Is Jerusalem Located?
History of Jerusalem
What Does the Name "Jerusalem" Mean?
Egyptian Meaning
The earliest mention of the name appears in the Egyptian Execration Texts from the 19th and 18th centuries BC. It is likely written in English as Urusalimum.
Semitic Meaning
In the 14th century BC, the name appears in the Abdi-Hepa correspondence from Tell el-Amarna, written as Urusalim. Later, it is found in the inscription of the Assyrian ruler Sennacherib, written as Ursalimmu. The two clear Semitic elements, uru (city) and salim (a divine name), create the meaning "the city of [the god] Salim." Hyphenating geographic names to include divine elements was common in the ancient Near East. The deity Salim, or Shalem (Akkadian, Shulmanu; compare Solomon), was part of the Amorite pantheon (compare Ezekiel 16:3).
Since the oldest texts—Egyptian, West Semitic, and Akkadian—only support urusalim, and since the Old Testament shows that Jerusalem was not originally a Hebrew city, it is likely that the Semitic origin of this name means "the city of [the god] Salim."
Hebrew/Aramaic Meaning
In the Hebrew Old Testament, Jerusalem is written as yerushalayim, and in the Aramaic sections, it is yerushalem. The name combines yarah (meaning "to found," see Job 38:6) and shalem (a divine name). This gives the meaning "the foundation of [the god] Shalem." The sh in Hebrew and Aramaic is similar to the Akkadian s.
Greek Meaning
In the New Testament, Jerusalem translates the two Greek words Ierousalem and Hierosoluma. Ierousalem is the Greek version of the Old Testament Aramaic form. Hierosoluma uses the Greek word hieros (holy) and is a Hellenized play on words. It does not match the Semitic root of the name or the city's historical reality.
Where Is Jerusalem Located?
Jerusalem is located at 31º 46’ 45” north latitude and 35º 13’ 25” east longitude. The city is over 762 meters (2,500 feet) above sea level. It is about 22.5 kilometers (14 miles) west of the northern end of the Dead Sea and around 53 kilometers (33 miles) east of the Mediterranean coast.
Jerusalem has a Mediterranean climate. From October to May, it rains, with about 63.5 centimeters (25 inches) of rain each year. In January and February, strong winds often accompany the rain, and temperatures drop to near freezing (see Ezra 10:9). The coldest weather happens during the heaviest rain. Snow falls in two out of every three years. From May to September, it does not rain, and high solar radiation causes intense heat.
Like Rome, Jerusalem is a city on hills. Five hills form the bare landmass, about 1.6 kilometers (one mile) long and 0.8 kilometer (half a mile) wide. Deep ravines surround it on all sides except the north. It sits on the crest of Palestine's central plateau. It is at the crossroads of the route connecting Hebron, Bethlehem, Shechem (Nablus), and points north with the route from the Jordan Valley and roads to the Mediterranean. This makes Jerusalem central to the country's commerce.
The highway through the Judean mountains and eastward could not pass south of Jerusalem due to the Dead Sea and its steep cliffs. The city likely became occupied because of its strategic commercial location, despite lacking a significant water supply.
Water, essential for civilization, has always been scarce in Jerusalem. The only permanent natural water source was the spring at Gihon, now sometimes called the Virgin’s Fountain, located in the Kidron Valley just east of the ancient fortress that David conquered. Tunnels were dug to access the Gihon when Jerusalem was under siege. Later, the Siloam Tunnel was cut through nearly 548.6 meters (1,800 feet) of limestone, allowing Gihon's waters to flow through the hill of Zion to the pool of Siloam.
Farther south, where the Kidron and Hinnom Valleys meet, there was another spring called En-rogel in the Bible (now Bir Eyyub). Because the water table lowered, this water source stopped flowing and was later turned into a well.
These two sources could not support a large population and were too deep in the Kidron Valley for irrigation. Therefore, people created a large network of cisterns, reservoirs, and water conduits for extra water supply since ancient times.
History of Jerusalem
The Pre-Israelite Period
Paleolithic and Mesolithic flint tools of an Acheulian type found in the Rephaim plain are the earliest evidence of humans in Jerusalem. Near the start of the fourth millennium BC, a settled group first occupied the southeastern hill. This is shown by artifacts found in three graves and pottery discovered on bedrock. By 1800 BC, a basic wall surrounded the crest of the southeastern hill.
In the Bible, Abraham gives tithes to Melchizedek, the king of Salem (Genesis 14:17–20). Later (Genesis 22), the great patriarch visits an area that becomes part of Jerusalem, Mount Moriah, where Isaac was almost sacrificed. Second Chronicles 3:1 identifies Mount Moriah as the temple hill.
In the 15th century BC, the Hurrians, possibly the biblical Horites, entered Palestine. Around the same time in Jerusalem, significant building activities began, and improved defensive methods were added. Most writers attribute these projects in Jerusalem to the Hurrian movement into the area.
Conquest and Settlement Period
When Gibeon made peace with Joshua's army (Joshua 9), Adoni-zedek, the king of Jerusalem, allied with the kings of Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon to attack Gibeon. Joshua then gathered his forces and defeated the coalition, killing all five kings at Makkedah (Joshua 10:16–27).
The tribe of Judah temporarily took control of Jerusalem and burned it after this victory (Judges 1:8). However, the Jebusites returned to the city (Joshua 15:63; 1 Chronicles 11:4–5). The Jebusites mostly controlled Jerusalem until David's time.
The city serves as a boundary between the tribal lands of Judah and Benjamin, marking the southern border of Benjamin's territory. The term "southern slope of the Jebusites" likely refers to the southwestern hill (Joshua 15:8; 18:16). The Jebusites probably controlled it at that time.
David’s Jerusalem
The Philistines won at Mount Gilboa, where Saul and Jonathan died in battle (1 Samuel 31). Then David ruled the tribe of Judah from Hebron. Meanwhile, Saul's surviving son, Ishbosheth, led the northern tribes from Mahanaim.
During the two-year conflict that followed, David's house grew stronger while Ishbosheth's forces weakened significantly (2 Samuel 3:1). This conflict ended with Ishbosheth's death and decapitation, leading to the scattering of his forces. David then became the unchallenged ruler of all the tribes of Israel.
However, the new monarch realized the need to create a national capital that both the north and south would accept. Jerusalem had stayed neutral during the conflict because it was surrounded by Jebusite territory. It was also a strategically important location and commercially central to the young nation, making it an ideal choice.
During David's 33-year reign in Jerusalem, he transformed the city into the center of an empire that stretched from Egypt to the Euphrates River. He undertook significant building projects and expanded the city. He strengthened the Canaanite walls and planned to extend the city, possibly along the eastern slope of Zion.
David built a royal residence with technology and materials from Hiram, king of Tyre (2 Samuel 5:11). Nehemiah 12:37 suggests this palace might have been near the east side of the southeastern hill. From a window of this house, Michal saw David dancing in a way she found shameful (2 Samuel 6:16–23). From the roof of this palace, David saw Bathsheba bathing (2 Samuel 11:2–5), and from this residence, he planned the murder of her husband, Uriah (2 Samuel 11:14–25).
By bringing the ark of God to Jerusalem, David showed great leadership (2 Samuel 6:1–15). This act suggested that Yahweh would live there. For the first time in Israel's history, he united its political and religious centers. Jerusalem became both a holy and royal city. As a result, people called it the "City of David" (2 Samuel 5:7) and the "City of God" (Psalm 46:4). Adult male Jews traveled to Jerusalem for feasts and offerings. David needed to make this arrangement permanent by building a temple for Yahweh. David wanted to do this (2 Samuel 7), but God said this task was for the king's son.
The First Temple Period
Solomon used the growing national awareness of the Davidic empire's size and influence to his advantage. As an innovative and dynamic leader, he transformed Jerusalem into a cosmopolitan hub. Caravans from Egypt to Babylonia and Phoenician trade with Elath, the Red Sea, and Ophir passed through his capital. Solomon's naval fleet traveled as far as Tarshish, likely on an island off Spain's western coast. These trips returned every three years with exotic goods like:
Apes
Peacocks
Silver
Tin
Ivory
Gold
Many people moved to the capital or came to visit. Solomon's fame became legendary (1 Kings 10).
Solomon was a major builder in Old Testament Jerusalem. His most important project was the first temple. Built on the temple hill's summit, it took seven years to complete, from April or May 966 BC to October or November 959 BC (1 Kings 6:1; 38). Hiram supplied both the technology and the cedar beams.
In 1 Kings 10:27, we see a clear picture of the wealth Solomon brought to Jerusalem: silver was as common as stones, and cedar was as plentiful as sycamore. It is estimated that Jerusalem received up to $17 million each year (a very large amount of money).
Ironically, this wealth became a burden for Solomon's rule. He spent too much, and his economic and political plans needed heavy taxes and forced labor from the Israelites (1 Kings 4:7–19; 5:13–18; see also 1 Kings 9:20–23). These issues led to a split in Israel's government after Solomon's death, resulting in a divided kingdom by 930 BC.
When the Babylonian army laid siege to Jerusalem in 588 BC, they captured it after many months. The city was destroyed. They burned the temple and Solomon's palace and demolished the city walls. They plundered the temple treasures and deported many citizens.
The Second Temple Period
Jeremiah predicted Jerusalem's destruction and 70-year captivity (Jeremiah 25:11; 29:10; see also 2 Chronicles 36:21; Daniel 9:2). In 538 BC, after Babylon fell, Cyrus, king of Persia, made a famous decree (2 Chronicles 36:22–23; Ezra 1:1–4; see also Isaiah 44:28; 45:1).
A small group of Jews then returned to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar, a prince of Judah, and Zerubbabel (Ezra 1:8–11; 2:2). In 515 BC, the second temple officially opened, and the Passover feast was celebrated again in Jerusalem (Ezra 6:15–18).
Ezra arrived in Jerusalem in the seventh year of Artaxerxes (Ezra 7:7). Assuming this refers to Artaxerxes I, Ezra returned in 458 BC. Only a small group felt the strong urge to make that difficult journey (see Josephus’s Antiquities 11.1.3).
Moved by reports of difficult conditions (Nehemiah 1:3–4), Nehemiah, in the 20th year of Artaxerxes (445 BC), left his job as the king's cup-bearer to go to Jerusalem. While earlier returnees focused on the temple, Nehemiah focused on the city walls. He provides the most detailed description of Jerusalem's city walls and layout after the exile (Nehemiah 2:11–16). Driven by his energetic enthusiasm, the people rebuilt the walls in 52 days (Nehemiah 6:15).
The Roman Period
In 40 BC, with help from the Parthians, Antigonus attacked and took over Jerusalem, forcing Herod to escape at night. He traveled to Rome, where the Senate named him "king of the Jews" (see Matthew 2:1).
With this new power, Herod gathered two Roman legions, and in 37 BC, he permanently expelled the Parthians. This marked the start of Herod's long and infamous rule in Jerusalem, which lasted 33 years, from 37 to 4 BC.
Jerusalem experienced prosperous and peaceful years during Herod's reign. He changed the appearance of the city. He moved the government center to the southwestern hill. There, he built a grand palace, an arena for sports, a theater, and a large aqueduct system.
Other building projects focused on the temple hill. Herod expanded the old Maccabean fortress into a much larger structure and named it Antonia, in honor of Mark Antony. In the temple area, he made the walking path on the north and south sides much larger, giving it a rectangular shape. Herod began reconstructing the temple in 20 BC, and it was not finished until around AD 64, just six years before Titus destroyed it (see John 2:20).