Music is a natural human expression that probably began with speech-singing and developed into songs. Musical instruments as accompaniment followed. Music as we know it has become quite complex, a luxury and entertainment. Music in ancient times was more of a practical expression of daily life, work, and worship.
The phrase "sing to the LORD" is common to the Old Testament (Exodus 15:21; 1 Chronicles 16:9; Psalms 68:32; 96:1–2; Isaiah 42:10; Jeremiah 20:13). But this phrase was not unique to the Jewish nation. All religions draw on the natural human impulse to sing. The command to "sing to the LORD" was a signal for the people to express their praise in song.
The Bible is limited in its treatment of music in ancient Israel. There was no written musical notation. The primary historical record of music is a collection of texts, including the psalms, and a few musical instructions. The biblical writers were not writing a history of their culture, but of a relationship with God. The biblical documents cover a long span of history and are grouped by category rather than in chronological order. Their comments about music are not critical. This makes it difficult to order the development of musical style with precision. Finally, there is the problem of understanding the biblical descriptions of music and its performance. Only since the 20th century have scholars been able to interpret the information provided in the Bible in terms of Eastern music systems.
Music in the Old Testament
The first musician mentioned in the Bible is "Jubal; he was the father of all who play the harp and flute" (Genesis 4:21). It is important to note that Jubal's profession is equal in importance to those of his brothers Jabal, the herdsman, and Tubal-cain, the smith. Music making is among the earliest professions of nomadic peoples. The name Jubal is believed to be a derivative from the Hebrew word for "ram." The ram’s horn (shophar) was an early instrument of the Jewish people. The shophar was and is significant in signaling important events.
The music described in early biblical history was largely of a functional nature. Music gained special significance as it became an important part of temple worship. Many of the descriptions of music making in ancient Israel before David’s time are quite practical. There are accounts of music at times of:
farewell (Genesis 31:27),
rejoicing and feasting (Exodus 32:17–18; Isaiah 5:12; 24:8–9),
military victories (2 Chronicles 20:27–28), and
for work (Numbers 21:17, the song of the well diggers; Is 16:10; Jeremiah 48:33).
Most of this music was probably rather basic and simple in nature. The music associated with military advances, for example, was meant to terrify the enemy (Judges 7:17–20). The music and dancing that greeted Moses as he descended from the mountain was described as if it sounded like "war in the camp" (Exodus 32:17–18).
In the early history of the Jewish people, women played an important part in the performance of music. The image of women dancing and singing for joy accompanied by percussion instruments is repeated several times:
Miriam led the women in a hymn of thanksgiving after the deliverance from the Red Sea (Exodus 15).
Jephthah’s daughter welcomed her father in his victory (Judges 11:34).
Deborah joined with Barak in singing a song of victory (Judges 5).
Women hailed David after his defeat of the Philistines (1 Samuel 18:6–7).
There is little mention of women as musicians following the establishment of the temple in Jerusalem. There are a few allusions to female participation in singing and dancing. For example, male and female singers are mentioned when the Jews returned from exile in Babylon (Nehemiah 7:67). This confirms that women still took part in musical performance at times.
As Jerusalem became the religious center of the Hebrew people between 950 and 850 BC, the role of the professional musician became more important. The women’s songs became insignificant compared to the formal ceremonies associated with the temple and the royal court. Levitical singers (belonging to the priestly group called the Levites) took most of the musical responsibility at the temple. But the people to joined in on responses in the singing of psalms as antiphonal singing (back-and-forth singing between two groups) developed.
Musical Style and Use
The Jewish people seem to have been especially musical. Other ancient cultures were influential, but there is evidence that Jews were in demand as musicians by other peoples. An Assyrian document shows King Hezekiah giving many male and female Jewish musicians in tribute to King Sennacherib. The Babylonians demanded that the captive Jews sing and entertain them (compare Psalm 137:3).
The Old Testament’s purpose was to tell the story of the relationship between the Jewish nation and God. In this context, most music references deal with music's function in worship. Evidence shows that there was also a large body of non-religious musical literature. There may have been groups of poets and singers early in Jewish history.
The kinds of songs recorded in the early part of the Old Testament represent a folklike poetry. The song of thanksgiving to the Lord by Moses and the people of Israel after their escape at the Red Sea is a stirring national song. Many descriptions of the biblical writers reflect the spirit of storytelling through song. This would be logical, as these stories were meant to be passed on. Marching songs (2 Chronicles 20:27–28), and songs of triumph (Judges 5) also indicate a secular body of music.
Music in Worship
The singers and musicians for the temple worship were chosen from the tribe of Levi. King David assembled the Levites for a census, and out of the total of 38,000 men over the age of 30, 4,000 were chosen as musicians. These 4,000 were later given specific jobs. "David and the commanders of the army set apart some of the sons of Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun to prophesy with the accompaniment of lyres, harps, and cymbals…Together with their relatives, who were all trained and skillful in the songs of the LORD, they numbered 288" (1 Chronicles 25:1, 7). The singers were further divided into 24 groups of 12 singers. These groups rotated in participating in the weekday, Sabbath, and high holy day services.
A later source shows there were minimum and maximum numbers of singers and instrumentalists required at each service. The minimum number of singers was twelve, the maximum was unlimited. At each service, these instruments had to be included:
at least two harps but no more than six
at least two flutes but no more than twelve
a minimum of two trumpets with no maximum
a minimum of nine lyres with no maximum
one player with a pair of cymbals
A singer was admitted to the Levitical choir at the age of thirty following a five-year apprenticeship (1 Chronicles 23:3). Five years is a relatively short time considering the amount of material these singers had to memorize (there was no written notation). They also had to memorize and master worship practice. Singers may have been in some level of training from childhood.
Levites lived in villages outside the city wall. They may have been actively involved in the musical education of their children (Nehemiah 12:29). The Levites performed other duties connected with the sacred service. Singers were excused from all other duties because they were on duty day and night (1 Chronicles 9:33). Their skills were an important part of the temple worship, so they were able to devote their entire life to developing their musical ability. A singer served in the choir for 20 years, from age 30 to 50. The music was of a high quality due to strict discipline and continuous practice and performance.
From the beginning of Jewish formal worship connected with the tabernacle, music and sound was important. The descriptions of Aaron's robe in Exodus 28:34–35 includes bells attached to the lower hem to sound as he entered the Holy Place.
The first music related to worship mentioned in the Old Testament is found in 2 Samuel 6 in the descriptions of the transfer of the ark of God. David and the Israelites sang, played instruments, and danced to the glory of the Lord. This music was very different from the formal ceremony described later in Solomon’s temple.
In 2 Chronicles 7:6, David is recognized for inventing the musical instruments used in the temple. Post-exile, Levitical singers are mentioned as the descendants of Asaph, the "singing master" appointed by David (Ezra 2:41; Nehemiah 7:44; 11:22–23). Passages like these indicate that worship music and organization came from David’s time.
The ceremonies in the Jewish temple were organized around the sacrifice. Singing formed an essential part of the sacrificial service and was necessary to make the sacrificial action official. There were special musical settings for each sacrifice. Daily burnt offerings, offerings for forgiveness of sin, praise offerings, and drink offerings each had individual ceremonies.
Particular psalms became associated with certain sacrifices as well as with certain days of the week. The psalm of the day was sung as the high priest started to pour out the drink offering. The psalm was divided into three sections, each signaled by the blowing of the trumpets. At the trumpet sound, the people would prostrate themselves. This is the only time the trumpets were used together with the other instruments in orchestral fashion on solemn occasions (2 Chronicles 5:12–13).
Music in the Psalms
Musical Psalm Titles
The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the book of Psalms contains the most information on music making in ancient Israel. The Psalter contains not only religious songs but also songs that have their roots in secular or popular songs. Work songs, love songs, and wedding songs may have influenced the Psalms. The majority are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes (formal poems) that relate great national events. Psalm 30 is "a song for the dedication of the temple." Psalm 137 portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity.
The psalms were an important part of all the services of the temple. The Psalter became the hymnal used in Israelite worship practices. Worship included an appointed psalm for each day of the week:
On the first day of the week, the people sang Psalm 24 in remembrance of the first day of creation.
On the seventh day of the week, the Sabbath, they sang Psalm 92.
After the sacrificial offerings, Psalm 105:1–5 was sung at the morning service and Psalm 96 at the evening service. The Hallel psalms (Psalms 113–118, 120–136, 146–148) were sung during the offering of the paschal lamb at the Passover feast.
Most of the worship music was performed by Levites. But texts of the psalms suggest that there was also congregational participation. Both synagogue and church chant forms can be traced to the poetic text of the psalms.
There are several types of psalmody:
Plain psalmody is sung by one person (for example, Psalms 3–5, 46).
Responsorial psalmody means the soloist is answered by the choir (for example, Psalms 67:1–2; the soloist sang verse 1 and the choir answered with verse 2).
Antiphonal psalmody involves two groups singing alternately (for example, Psalms 103:20–22). The congregation would chant a refrain such as appears in Psalms 80: "Restore us, O God, and cause Your face to shine upon us, that we may be saved" appears often throughout the psalm.
Even though the synagogue had no altar for sacrifice, psalm singing retained an important place. When the Romans destroyed the temple, the worship heritage of the Jews was at risk of being lost. Translating customs of temple worship like music to synagogue worship kept the worship heritage intact.
The part of the psalms most difficult to understand are the headings that are not part of the poetic text. The first question is whether these should even be considered as superscripts. Greek, Latin, Hebrew, and other ancient languages were written so that text did not include chapter or paragraph breaks between. Verses and even the division of the psalms themselves were partially made by copyists, chiefly the Masoretes (ancient Jewish scholars who preserved the Hebrew text of the Old Testament).
There is some question about which psalms the texts that are not part of the poem belong with. They may be subscripts (notes at the beginning) instead of superscripts (notes at the end). Sumerian and Babylonian poetry listed information like the name of the author, the musical instrument used for accompaniment, the tune, the purpose, at the end of the poem. Hence, some of the headings may be endings.
The notes at the beginning of a psalm are grouped into three categories:
musical terms giving direction for the actual performance
musical cues designating the tune to which the psalm would be sung
comments indicating the function of the psalm.
These terms have been interpreted in various ways.
Originally, these headings may have been marginal notes for the choir leaders. Realizing that these terms were not related to the psalm text, early biblical scribes may not have been careful with their placement in the text. This may explain some of the discrepancies among the early manuscripts. Certain words are left out in some and some terms assigned to only a few psalms may originally have been indicated on more of them.
All but 50 of the psalms contain a proper name in the heading. These names possibly indicate the author. Other commentators interpret the preposition appearing before the names to mean "for." This would mean that the names represent dedication instead of authorship. Thus, the title would be "A Psalm for David," not "A Psalm of David."
This may be the case with the names of Asaph, Heman, Ethan, and especially the sons of Korah. It would make better sense for the psalm to be written for rather than by the family. Seventy-three psalms have David’s name in the heading, hence the common reference to the Psalter as the Psalms of David. Twelve include the name of Asaph, eleven include the children of Korah, two include Solomon, and one each contains Moses, Heman, and Ethan.
Musical Terms in the Psalm Titles
Many musical terms are included in the superscriptions. These cue the kind of instrumental accompaniment, mood, and style of performance for the psalm.
Alamoth is one of the most controversial terms found in the psalm headings. It appears at the beginning of Psalms 46 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:20. One meaning for the Hebrew word is "maiden." Some musicologists interpret this as an instruction that the psalm should be sung in the range of the female singing voice. The reference in Chronicles is to harps in the range of women’s voices. This interpretation does not seem to fit Psalms 46, but it becomes more logical if we look at the preceding psalm and read the term as a subscript. Psalm 45 is a song of love, actually a nuptial ode, so it would be natural for women to sing the second half (verses 10–17).
There is little mention of women singing in the temple, but young boys in training may have sung along with the Levitical singers. Also, this may be a case where the term appears only once in the modern text but may have been used more often in the original. Another possible meaning for alamoth is "flutes." This meaning would describe the kind of musical accompaniment for the performance of the psalm.
Gittith is a term found in the superscriptions of Psalms 8, 81, and 84. It may be a musical cue, indicating a mood for the performance of these psalms. But a more common explanation is that it is a collective term for the stringed instruments that would have accompanied them.
Mahalath has been left in its original Hebrew form by early translators and is found in the headings of Psalms 53 and 88. It may have roots in the Hebrew mahaleh "sickness" or mahot "dance," though neither of these words can be related to the psalm texts. Another explanation is a musical one. Mahalath may come from the word halal meaning "to pierce," implying that the psalm was to be accompanied with pipes.
Maskil (or "Maschil" in the King James Version) appears in the headings of 13 psalms (Psalms 32, 42, 44–45, 52–55, 74, 78, 88–89, 142). The term is probably derived from the verb sakal, "to have insight or comprehension," but there is no agreement among commentators. The instructive nature and the structure of stanzas and refrains in the psalms themselves leads musicologists to conclude the term represents a song of praise. It may have been sung by a soloist with participation by the choir.
Menazzeah appears in the heading of 55 psalms. It appears 52 times in the first three books of Psalms (Psalms 1–89), not at all in book four (Psalms 90–106), and 3 times in book five (Psalms 107–150).
The most common modern translations are:
"to the Choirmaster" (Revised Standard Version)
"to the choir director" (New American Standard Bible, New Living Translation)
"to the director of music” (New International Version)
"to the chief Musician" (King James Version, New King James Version)
The word is derived from the Hebrew verb nazzah, appearing in 1 Chronicles 23:4 and Ezra 3:8–9 in the sense of "administering." In 1 Chronicles 15:21 the word is found in relation to leading or directing song in the temple. Menazzeah relates to the choirmaster and represents the singer chosen to lead the music. This person was probably involved in rehearsing and instructing.
It is now assumed that menazzeah indicates the psalm was to be sung partially or entirely by a soloist. In some texts, this shows when there is a change in person, from "I" for the soloist to "we" for the choir or congregation. Psalm 5 is an example of a text divided for solo and choral singing:
verses 1–3 solo
verses 4–6 choral
verses 7–8 solo
verses 9–10 choral
verses 11–12 end the psalm with the combined soloist and choir
Miktam (or "Michtam" in the King James Version) is another term that has no clear musical meaning, due mainly to the fact that its origin is unknown. It occurs in Psalms 16 and 56–60, all of which have a character of lamentation (expressing sorrow) or supplication (asking for help). In a musical sense, it probably meant that a certain well-known tune was to be selected as the melody of the psalm.
Mizmor (a Hebrew word meaning a song sung to instrumental accompaniment) is found nowhere else in the Bible. It is included in the superscriptions of 57 psalms. Mizmor probably indicated a song accompanied by melodic instruments. This would be in contrast to a dance song accompanied by rhythmic instruments.
Neginah appears in the superscriptions of Psalms 4, 6, 54–55, 61, 67, and 76. The term neginah and its plural neginoth are found in Psalm 77:7, Lamentations 5:14, Isaiah 38:20, and Habakkuk 3:19. Neginah comes from the Hebrew root naggen, "to touch the strings." This note instructs stringed instruments to accompany the singing.
Nehiloth is found only in the introduction to Psalm 5 (King James Version). The origin of the word is problematic. It could come from the verb nahal, "to possess or inherit," or more possibly from halal, meaning "to pierce." The latter implies the idea of a pierced instrument (the flute or pipe) to be used for accompaniment.
Sheminith appears in Psalms 6 and 12 and also in 1 Chronicles 15:21. The Hebrew word means literally "over the eighth." Some scholars feel it had something to do with an octave. But the Hebrew musical language probably did not include a musical unit divided into eight parts.
Other scholars interpret sheminith as meaning an eight-stringed instrument. A more logical interpretation comes from examining its use in 1 Chronicles. In 15:20 the instructions are for musicians to play the harps according to alamoth and in verse 21 to play the lyres according to sheminith.
Here the terms alamoth and sheminith seem to be used in opposition. If alamoth implies a register of the female voice, then sheminith would imply a lower register. Thus, it may have been an instruction to use a lower pitched instrument for accompaniment.
Psalm Varieties in the Titles
Some of the notes in the psalm headings are indications of the type or variety of psalm.
Hazkir is found in the headings of Psalms 38 and 70. According to the Targum (an ancient Aramaic paraphrase of the Hebrew Bible), this is an indication that the psalm was sung at the sacrificial rite called askara. The word is then translated "for a memorial offering."
Lammed appears in the superscription of Psalm 60 in the phrase le-lammed, translated "to teach." According to tradition, this was a psalm, though undoubtedly not the only one, taught to young people as part of their education. This is another example of a term that may have been omitted from other psalms in later versions of the Psalter.
Shiggaion is in the heading of Psalm 7 and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably comes from the Hebrew verb shagah, "to wander." It may also be connected with the Assyrian worship term shigu, which represented a sad song in several stanzas. Biblical scholars have assumed shiggaion, plural shigionoth, was a lament or a song expressing sorrow for wrongdoing.
Shir is the simplest word for "song" and was probably used in the headings at an early stage of the Psalter; it is usually found with mizmor (13 times). Fifteen psalms have this heading. It was probably the term for a specific type of praise song, usually performed by the choir.
Shir Hamaalot and Shir Lamaalot occur in the headings of Psalms 120–134, which are often referred to as the Psalms of Ascent (King James Version "Psalms of Degrees"). Most explanations offered relate to the fact that the temple was situated on high ground.
Often these 15 psalms are associated with the 15 steps leading from the Court of the Women to the Court of the Israelites. But most modern scholars believe the idea of "going up" referred to the pilgrims’ journey to Jerusalem to worship at the temple. These psalms are short, with popular appeal, making them appropriate for singing during the journey.
Shir Hanukkat Habayit is found only in the heading of Psalm 30. This phrase tells that the psalm was to be used for the dedication or rededication of the house of God.
Shir-yedidot appears only in Psalm 45. It refers to a love song that was probably sung at wedding ceremonies.
Tefillah is a common term for "prayer" and appears in the headings of Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, and 142, and also in Habakkuk 3:1. The word probably refers to a specific form of poetic prayer.
Selah is one of the most frequently used, but most mysterious, terms found in the book of Psalms. It occurs in 39 psalms, appearing a total of 71 times in the Psalter. Selah occurs 67 times within the text and 4 times at the end of a psalm. It is most frequent in the first three books:
In the first book selah appears in 9 psalms.
In the second book, 17 psalms.
In the third book, 11 psalms.
In the fourth book it is not found at all.
In the fifth book it appears in only two psalms.
Thirty-one of these psalms also include the term menazzeah in their superscriptions. This implies that they were sung by a soloist and choir.
Most commonly, selah is interpreted as a signal for a break in the singing and possibly for an instrumental interlude. It never appears at the beginning of a psalm but only in the middle of the text or at the end. The regularity of its appearance within a psalm is not consistent. In only a few instances do these divisions break the psalm into equal sections.
Because of the random placement of the term, some scholars believe that, like the headings, selah was not always carefully copied into the text. It may have been a note appearing only in the texts of the musicians, which would explain this inconsistency.
An explanation of selah is found in the Talmudic tradition: "Ben Azra clashed the cymbal and the Levites broke forth into singing. When they reached a break in the singing they blew upon the trumpets and the people prostrated themselves. At every break there was a blowing of the trumpet and at every blowing of the trumpet a prostration. This was the rite of the daily whole offering in the service of the House of our God." Selah, then, would be an instruction for the musicians that the singing was to stop and the instrumentalists were to play.
The term higgaion selah appears once, in Psalm 9:16. The word higgaiaon comes from the root hagah, "to murmur, to growl, to produce a low sound." This may have been an instruction for the interlude to be more subdued than a normal selah.
Ancient Melodies in the Titles
Many psalms contain headings that are not direct musical references. They are cue words to suggest well-known tunes. These references probably refer either to names or the first words of popular secular songs (makams) whose melodic patterns were used in singing the psalm. Biblical scholars have sometimes tried to find hidden meaning in these headings. Most musicologists believe these are simply references or introductions to melodies.
Aijeleth Shahar, in Psalm 22 (King James Version), is translated "according to The Hind of the Dawn" (Revised Standard Version), and "To the tune of ‘The Doe of the Morning’ " (New International Version), "To the tune ‘Doe of the Dawn’ " (New Living Translation).
Al-taschith, in Psalms 57–59 and 75 (King James Version), is translated “To the tune ‘Do Not Destroy!’ ” (New Living Translation).
Jonath-elem-rechokim, in Psalm 56 (King James Version), is translated "according to The Dove on Far-off Terebinths" (Revised Standard Version), and "To the tune ‘Dove on Distant Oaks’ " (New Living Translation).
Mahalath Leannoth, in Psalm 88, is translated "To the tune ‘The Suffering of Affliction’ " (New Living Translation).
Muthlabben, in Psalm 9, is translated "To the tune ‘Death of the Son’ " (New Living Translation).
Shoshannim, in Psalms 45 and 69 (King James Version), is translated "To the tune ‘Lilies’ " (New Living Translation).
Shoshannim-Eduth, in Psalm 80 (King James Version), is translated "To the tune ‘Lilies of the Covenant’ " (New Living Translation).
Shushan-eduth, in Psalm 60, is translated "To the tune ‘Lily of the Testimony’ " (New Living Translation).
These melody types appear only in the first three books of the Psalter. This may imply that these popular makams had stopped being used by the time the final books of the Psalter were written. Other makam-types had probably become popular. The authors, realizing the relatively short life of a popular tune, did not include them in the headings of the Psalms. They left the choice up to the performer.
Music in the New Testament
First-Century Influences: The Synagogue
By the time of Christ, the synagogue had become the chief place of worship for the Jewish people. It began as a place for study of the law but gradually became the center of worship for Jews unable to attend the temple.
The worship service of the temple could not be duplicated in the synagogue as there was no sacrificial rite. The music could not be exactly reproduced without trained Levitical singers. Scholars do not agree about the amount of continuity between the music of the temple and the music of the synagogue. But there is evidence that certain musical practices did remain constant between the two places of worship.
Information on the customs and rituals of the synagogue come from Talmudic writings. The musical elements of worship in the synagogue were the chanting of Scripture and the singing of psalms and spiritual songs. The choral singing of the temple was replaced by a single cantor (song leader).
The cantor was a layman who, according to tradition, had to have the following qualifications: "He had to be well educated, gifted with a sweet voice, of humble personality, recognized by the community, conversant with Scripture and all the prayers; he must not be a rich man, for his prayers should come from his heart." A cantor's most important job was the cantillation (musical chanting) of the Law and the Prophets. A series of accents and punctuations, early musical notation, were indications for the cantor in the musical interpretation of the Scripture.
Psalm singing was gradually transplanted from the temple to the synagogue. This practice influenced the early Christian church. Gregorian psalm tones have their roots in Hebrew singing of psalms.
First-Century Influences: Greek and Roman Cultures
Both the temple and the synagogue were familiar to the early Christians (Acts 2:46–47; 3:1; 5:42; 9:20; 18:4; and so forth). But the Greek and Roman cultures also played a major part in shaping the young church. Greek influences by the time of Christ had long been felt in the Middle East. Some Jewish leaders strongly opposed this influence, but the Greek arts had permeated Jewish culture.
Greek philosophers considered music an emotionally cleansing force. They thought it could lead humans into spiritual knowledge. This understanding led to the belief that music had a moral substance that could influence people to either good or evil. If this philosophy had effectively transferred into Judeo-Christian thought, certainly Paul would have encouraged the use of music to spread the gospel. Paul’s omission of this theory implies that the Judeo-Christian world at that time had rejected the Greek ideal, at least in part.
Jewish rabbis considered music an art form for the praise of God. Greek philosophers thought of it as a powerful moral force in creation. The Romans considered music mainly as entertainment. The music of the Roman games was neither religious nor philosophic. From the accounts of witnesses, it was not technically exceptional. In the Roman Empire musicians were given a lower status and looked on as mere entertainers. One reason the early church did not include instrumental music in their worship was in reaction to the secular use of instruments by the Romans.
In the New Testament Writings
One of the few mentions of instruments in the New Testament is the use of flutes at a wake (Matthew 9:23). As in the Old Testament, music is associated with feasting and merrymaking (for example, the return of the prodigal son, Luke 15:25). Five passages mention music metaphorically (Matthew 6:2; 11:17; Luke 7:32; 1 Corinthians 13:1; 14:7–8). The most well-known of these is Paul’s celebration of love in 1 Corinthians 13. The denunciation of the gong and cymbals must be understood because of the attitude of the early Christians toward the music of the Pharisees. Here the signal instruments of the temple were used to represent pompous display of religious devotion.
Most references to music are found in the visions and prophetic passages about the end times. These are found in many places in the New Testament, most frequently in the book of Revelation (also Matthew 24:31; 1 Corinthians 15:52; 1 Thessalonians 4:16; Hebrews 12:19). Many of these descriptions are associated with musical references in the Old Testament (for example, the use of harps and trumpets and the singing of the Hallelujah). But the value of many of the passages in Revelation comes from their literary style. These passages that praise God and resemble psalms were probably spontaneous "spiritual songs" created by the early church (for example, Revelation 5:9–10).
The passages that mention religious or worship music are often more abstract than literal. Two parallel passages describing the Last Supper (Matthew 26:30; Mark 14:26) mention that Christ and his disciples sang a hymn. This is the only direct account of Jesus singing. It is probable that when he read in the synagogue he did so in the accepted vocal style (Luke 4:16–20). Despite controversy surrounding the actual events at the Last Supper, it is a safe assumption that the hymn sung was a traditional Jewish hymn, probably associated with the Passover.
From the account in Acts 16:25 we know that Paul and Silas sang hymns while in jail. Paul gives instruction for music making in 1 Corinthians 14:15, 26 in terms of a balance between rationalism (logical thinking) and emotion. And, as with all the gifts of the Spirit, Paul asks that singing be done for edification (helping other believers learn and grow spiritually).
In two similar passages (Ephesians 5:19; Colossians 3:16) Paul groups together three musical terms:
psalms
hymns
spiritual songs
The singing of psalms was an obvious continuation from the synagogue. Early Christian psalm singing probably followed the Jewish style.
The term for "hymns" probably refers to poetic texts. These songs were probably modeled after the psalms, but praise Christ. "Spiritual songs" may refer to a spontaneous, ecstatic form of musical prayer, possibly wordless (perhaps related to speaking in tongues). There is evidence that this style was popular in mystical Judaism, too. These outbursts of song were probably melismatic (sung on one tone) and are perhaps the early examples of the later Alleluia chant.
Hymnody in the New Testament
It can be assumed that the early Christians composed hymns in praise of Christ. Most New Testament hymns are based on Hebrew poetic psalm forms, but there is Greek and Latin influence also. The hymns from the Gospel of Luke have become well-known canticles (psalm-like songs) used by the church:
the Magnificat (Luke 1:46–55)
the Benedictus (Luke 1:68–79)
the Gloria (Luke 2:14)
the Nunc Dimittis (Luke 2:29–32).
These songs are written like the psalms in the Old Testament. They express strong trust in Jesus as savior and show excitement about his promised return. Other hymns about Christ found in the New Testament include the introduction to the Gospel of John, Ephesians 2:14–16, Philippians 2:6–11, Colossians 1:15–20, 1 Timothy 3:16, Hebrews 1:3, and 1 Peter 3:18–22.