This term, and the related “prophet,” “to prophesy,” “prophetism,” and “prophetic”, are derived from a group of Greek words that, in secular Greek, mean “speak forth,” “proclaim,” “announce.” In biblical Greek, however, these terms always carry the connotation of speaking, proclaiming, or announcing something under the influence of spiritual inspiration.
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Prophecy in the Old Testament
One of the clearest and most significant statements on the nature of prophetic inspiration in the Old Testament is found in Numbers 12:6–8:
He said, ”Hear now my words: If there is a prophet among you, I, the LORD, will reveal Myself to him in a vision; I will speak to him in a dream. But this is not so with My servant Moses; he is faithful in all My house. I speak with him face to face, clearly and not in riddles; he sees the form of the LORD.“
Several important insights into the nature of prophetic inspiration are found in this passage:
The prophetic gift of Moses was unique in that he alone received revelations directly from God.
Ordinarily, prophetic revelation was received in a dream or a vision.
The meaning of prophetic revelation is not always completely clear. Prophecy is sometimes ambiguous.
Further insight into the nature of prophetic revelation is found in Deuteronomy 18:18: “I [God] will raise up for them [Israelites] a prophet like you [Moses] from among their brothers. I will put My words in his mouth, and he will tell them everything I command him.” This passage is of interest because Jesus was identified as “the prophet like Moses” who came in fulfillment of this prediction (Acts 3:22; 7:37). But the more immediate historical reference is to the succession of prophets that guided Israel from Joshua to Malachi. The phrase “I will put my words in his mouth” refers to the process of divine inspiration and is reminiscent of the common Old Testament prophetic formula “the word of the Lord came to [such and such a prophet]” (for examples, see 1 Samuel 15:10; 2 Samuel 24:11; 1 Kings 19:9; Jonah 1:1; Haggai 1:1; 2:1, 20; Zechariah 7:1, 8; 8:1). A true prophet is one who speaks (or repeats) all that God has told him [or her].
Modes of Prophetic Inspiration
Dreams were a commonly recognized mode of inspiration throughout the ancient world. But they were more highly regarded in Greece than in ancient Israel. Revelatory dreams in the Bible fall into two major categories: (1) dreams whose meaning is self-evident, and (2) symbolic dreams that usually require the expertise of an interpreter of dreams. Both types normally involve both visual and auditory elements. In those dreams whose meaning is self-evident, normally a supernatural being (God or an angel) appears to the dreamer and speaks to him or her in a straightforward manner.
More frequently, revelatory dreams have symbolic elements that require interpretation. The two great dream interpreters of the Old Testament are Joseph and Daniel. The latter, Daniel, is clearly a prophet. The two symbolic dreams that Joseph himself dreamed (Genesis 37:5–11) had sufficiently self-evident meaning so that his brothers and father were able to interpret them immediately. The dreams of the butler and baker were more complex (40:1–19), as well as Pharaoh’s dream (41:1–36), which Joseph was able to interpret with the help of God. Similarly, Daniel was enabled to interpret the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar (Daniel 2:25–45; 4:4–27). Joseph and Daniel both attributed the skill in interpreting such dreams to God (Genesis 40:8; 41:16, 25; Daniel 2:27–30; compare 4:9). Dreams are used almost interchangeably with visions in referring to modes of prophetic inspiration (Joel 2:28). But dreams do not occupy a significant part in the prophetic revelations of any of the Old Testament prophets, with the exception of Daniel.
One of the most characteristic modes of prophetic inspiration was the vision (Numbers 12:6; 24:4, 16; Hosea 12:10). The revelatory visions experienced by the prophets were not limited to visual phenomena alone but also included the auditory dimension as well. In Isaiah 1:1, the author describes his entire prophetic book as a “vision”: “This is the vision concerning Judah and Jerusalem that Isaiah son of Amoz saw during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah.” Yet in the very next verse, Isaiah says, “Listen, O heavens, and give ear, O earth, for the LORD has spoken.” Again, in Amos 1:1, “These are the words of Amos, who was among the sheepherders of Tekoa—what he saw concerning Israel” (emphasis added).
Manifestations of Prophetic Inspiration
All prophecy, whether biblical or not, presumes that the prophet either possessed or was possessed by a personal supernatural power. The behaviors expressed from this possession vary greatly.
The phenomenon generally called “ecstatic” prophecy appears to have existed in Canaan prior to the arrival of the Hebrew tribes in the 13th century BC. The first reference to ecstatic prophecy in Israel occurs in 1 Samuel 10:5–13 (11th century BC), and it persisted at least till the sixth century BC (Jeremiah 29:26).
The ecstatic prophet achieves a trancelike state by self-induced means. The most common devices used to achieve a state of ecstasy were musical instruments, such as the harp, tambourine, flute, and lyre (1 Samuel 10:5). Among the prophets of Baal, self-flagellation was another means of inducing ecstasy (1 Kings 18:28–29).
This kind of prophetic ecstasy was usually practiced by groups of prophets (1 Samuel 10:5), and such ecstasy was contagious. When Saul met a band of such prophets, the Spirit of God came upon him and he, too, began to prophesy (verses 10–13). This phenomenon occurred repeatedly to various messengers sent by Saul on a later occasion (19:20–22). At that time Saul again prophesied, and his ecstatic behavior is described in 1 Samuel 19:24. When Elisha was asked to prophesy for King Jehoram of Israel, he first requested a musician. When the musician played, the power of the Lord came upon him (2 Kings 3:15).
Types of Old Testament Prophets
There are two basic types of prophetic commission in the Old Testament. One type is that of a narrative call by God to a particular individual whose objections to the call are gradually overcome in a dialogue between himself and God. The classic example of this type of prophetic commission is found in Jeremiah 1:4–8:
The word of the LORD came to me, saying: “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were born I set you apart and appointed you as a prophet to the nations.”
“Ah, Lord GOD,” I said, “I surely do not know how to speak, for I am only a child!”
But the LORD told me: “Do not say, ‘I am only a child.’ For to everyone I send you, you must go, and all that I command you, you must speak. Do not be afraid of them, for I am with you to deliver you,” declares the LORD.
Similar prophetic commissions including such dialogues are associated with the calls of Moses (Exodus 3:1–4:17) and Gideon (Judges 6:11–17).
The second major form of prophetic commission is the “throne vision.” An outstanding example is Isaiah 6:1–8:
In the year that King Uzziah died, I saw the Lord seated on a throne, high and exalted; and the train of His robe filled the temple...
Then I said: “Woe is me, for I am ruined, because I am a man of unclean lips dwelling among a people of unclean lips; for my eyes have seen the King, the LORD of Hosts.”
Then one of the seraphim flew to me, and in his hand was a glowing coal that he had taken with tongs from the altar. And with it he touched my mouth and said: “Now that this has touched your lips, your iniquity is removed and your sin is atoned for.”
Then I heard the voice of the Lord saying: “Whom shall I send? Who will go for Us?”
And I said: “Here am I. Send me!”
Here we have an account of the visionary presence of a prophet in the heavenly council. In this case, however, the prophet participates in the deliberations and thereby receives a prophetic commission. Though few prophets have left accounts of their divine commissions, most of them appear to have been conscious of having been “sent” by God (Isaiah 48:16; Hosea 8:1; Amos 7:14–15). According to Jeremiah, false prophets did not receive such divine commissions (Jeremiah 23:21, 32; 28:15).
The Message of the Prophets
The Form of the Message
The most common opening formula for prophetic oracles in the Old Testament is the phrase “Thus says the Lord.” This phrase occurs hundreds of times in prophetic contexts. This formula clearly implies that the message so introduced is not the word of the prophet who speaks the oracle but of the God of Israel who delivered his word to his prophet. The use of this formula also reiterates the prophet’s sense of divine commission. In oracles introduced in this manner, God speaks in the first person. In fact, virtually all Israelite prophetic utterance is formulated as the direct speech of the God of Israel.
The prophets used many literary forms in which to express their oracles. Two of the more widely used forms of prophetic speech are the judgment speech and the oracle of salvation. The judgment speech is composed of at least two central elements: the speech of rebuke or invective, and the pronouncement of judgment (see 2 Kings 1:3–4). The second common prophetic speech form is the oracle of salvation (see Isaiah 41:8–13). Other fixed forms of prophetic speech include the prophecy of salvation (43:14–21), the proclamation of salvation (41:17–20; 42:14–17; 43:16–21; 49:7–12), and the oracle of sorrow (Isaiah 5:8–10; 10:1–4; Am 5:18–24; 6:1–7; Mi 2:1–5).
The Content of the Message
All of the prophets predict the future. Such prediction, however, is based not on human curiosity of what the future will hold but rather is rooted in the future consequences of past or present violations of the covenant, or on a future act of deliverance that will provide hope for a discouraged people. Most of the prophetic speeches that have been preserved in the Old Testament were originally delivered as public proclamations or sermons. Most of these prophetic proclamations were caused by the iniquity and apostasy of Israel. Hosea and Jeremiah condemned Israel because she had broken the covenant (Jeremiah 11:2–3; Hosea 8:1).
The prophets are frequently associated with social justice and social reform. These elements were unquestionably an important dimension of their message. Amos denounced the rich who afflicted the poor (Amos 2:6–8; 4:1; 5:11; 8:4–6). He railed against sexual immorality (2:6–8) and against those who take bribes (5:12). Hosea provided a list of prevalent vices, including lying, killing, stealing, adultery, and idolatry (Hosea 4:2). Idolatry was a particular target for his denunciations (8:5; 11:2). The background for such heated denunciations of Israel’s behavior is God’s unending love for Israel (Isaiah 43:4; Jeremiah 31:3; Hosea 3:1; 11:1–4; 14:4; Malachi 1:2), which is inseparable from his election of Israel (Isaiah 43:1; Jeremiah 33:24; Ezekiel 20:5; Hosea 3).
The prophets were concerned not only with the transgressions of Israel and the historical judgment that would inevitably follow but also with the achievement of a final future time of bliss. The message of many of the prophets is thoroughly concerned with the end times. One such end-time concept is that of the Day of the Lord. The concept of the Day of the Lord first appears in Amos, where the emphasis lies on the disaster that will fall upon Israel on that day. In spite of Amos’s emphasis on disaster, the Day of the Lord is a conception that had both salvation and judgment overtones for Israel. The disaster that will occur in the Day of the Lord can be viewed in terms of a literal historical fulfillment in the tragic events of 722 BC (the fall of Samaria) and 586 BC (the fall of Judah). But there are nevertheless features of these predictions that go beyond historical fulfillment and reach toward end-time fulfillment.
Since the Israelite conception of “salvation” was largely temporal in its dimensions, it included such blessings as length of life, fruitfulness of the womb and field, peace and victory over one’s enemies, the abundance of water, and so on. In harmony with this conception of salvation, the future age is conceived in precisely those terms, as in Amos 9:13–15.
The prophets pictured a time when David himself, or someone very much like him, would return and inaugurate a golden era reminiscent of the great Davidic and Solomonic period. The covenant of God with David was not a conditional covenant but rather one that was absolutely inviolable (2 Samuel 7:4–17; Psalm 89; Jeremiah 33:19–22). It was with this knowledge that the prophets could look forward confidently to a restoration of David’s throne (Jeremiah 17:24–26; 23:5–6; 33:14–15).
Prophecy in the New Testament
In contrast to the few self-proclaimed prophets of the period between the Old and New Testaments, early Christianity began with a short intense period of prophetic activity. This period lasted well into the second century AD. Jesus, his disciples and followers, and the early Christians were convinced that the times in which they lived were times in which Old Testament prophecy was being fulfilled (Mark 1:14–15; Acts 2:16–21; Romans 16:25–27; 1 Corinthians 10:11). Yet this era was not only one of fulfillment but also one of the renewal of the prophetic gift.
John the Baptist
John the Baptist is remembered in the New Testament primarily as the forerunner of Jesus whose coming was predicted by Malachi (Malachi 4:5–6). Yet, in his own right, John proclaimed the imminent judgment of God with a sense of denunciation and rebuke reminiscent of the Old Testament prophets. John’s clothes, consisting of a hairy cloak and a leather girdle (Mark 1:6), were reminiscent of the typical clothing of Old Testament prophets (1 Kings 19:19; 2 Kings 1:8; 2:13–14; Zechariah 13:4). John was regarded as a prophet by people everywhere (Matthew 14:5; 17:10–13; Mark 9:11–13; 11:32; Luke 1:76; 7:26). Luke reports, in a style similar to the Old Testament prophetic narratives, that “the word of God came to John” (Luke 3:2).
Two short prophetic speeches have been preserved in Matthew 3:7–10 (compare Luke 3:7–9) and Mark 1:7–8 (compare Matthew 3:11–12; Luke 3:15–18). In the first speech, John denounced those of his generation who had transgressed the covenant law and urged them to change their manner of life. In the second speech, John predicted the coming of the Mighty One, Jesus (Matthew 3:11; Mark 1:7; Luke 3:16; John 1:15, 27, 30; Acts 13:25). John’s style, however, was not precisely that of the Old Testament prophets. His statements were made on his own authority. He never used formulas such as “thus says the Lord,” or presented his prophetic utterances as if they were speeches made by God. Yet, in spite of these differences, John is appropriately regarded as the last representative of the Old Testament prophetic tradition (Matthew 11:13; Luke 16:16).
Jesus of Nazareth
Jesus was popularly regarded as a prophet (Matthew 16:14; 21:10–11; Mark 6:14–15; 8:28; Luke 7:16, 39; 9:8, 19; John 6:14; 7:40, 52). This assessment was based as much on the mighty deeds Jesus performed as on his prophetic speeches and predictions. Though Jesus nowhere claimed prophetic status directly, that claim is implicit in Mark 6:4: “Only in his hometown, among his relatives, and in his own household is a prophet without honor” (compare Matthew 13:57; Luke 4:24). It is implicit as well in Luke 13:33: “Nevertheless, I must keep going today and tomorrow and the next day, for it is not admissible for a prophet to perish outside of Jerusalem.” In Acts, Jesus is regarded as “the prophet like Moses” predicted in Deuteronomy 18:18 (Acts 3:22; 7:37). Matthew presents Jesus as the New Moses, but he does not particularly emphasize his prophetic role. John, however, like Luke, emphasizes Jesus’s role as the prophet (John 4:19; 6:14–15; 7:40).
While the canonical gospels and Acts reflect the notion that Jesus was a prophet, they also emphasize the fact that he was much more than a prophet. Nevertheless, the role of prophet was important enough in early Judaism that Jesus’s recognition as a prophet is very significant. There are 12 solid reasons for regarding Jesus as a prophet in the Old Testament tradition:
The ultimate authority of Jesus’s teaching (Mark 1:27). This feature is underlined by his use of the introductory formula “(Amen) I say to you,” which is reminiscent of the formula “thus says the Lord” used by the Old Testament prophets.
The poetic character of many of Jesus’s sayings is unlike contemporary rabbinic teaching but is similar to the poetic rhetoric of the Old Testament prophets.
Jesus experienced visions (Luke 10:18) like the ancient prophets.
Jesus, like the prophets, made many predictions (Matthew 23:38; Mark 13:2; 14:58; Luke 13:35; and others).
Like the Old Testament prophets, Jesus performed symbolic acts (such as the cleansing of the temple, the entry into Jerusalem, and the Last Supper).
Jesus, like the prophets, when necessary, rejected the formal observance of religious ritual and emphasized the moral and spiritual dimensions of obedience to God.
Jesus announced the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God—an end-time proclamation similar to those made by the prophets.
Like the Old Testament prophets, Jesus functioned as a preacher of repentance.
Jesus, like many of the prophets, was conscious of a special calling of God (Matthew 15:24; Mark 8:31; 9:37; 14:36; Luke 4:18–26).
Jesus, like the prophets, received divine revelation through intimate communion with God (Matthew 11:27; Luke 10:22).
Like the prophets, Jesus represented God. To obey Jesus was to obey God, and to reject him was to reject God (Mark 9:37; compare Ezekiel 33:30–33).
Like the prophets, Jesus was conscious of a mission to all Israel (Matthew 15:24; 19:28; Luke 22:30).
Among the many prophetic predictions of Jesus are the following:
Predictions of the imminent arrival of the kingdom of God (Matthew 10:7–8, 23; 23:39; Mark 1:15; 9:1; 13:28–29)
Predictions of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple (Matthew 23:37–39; 24:2; 26:61; 27:40; Mark 13:2; 14:58; 15:29; Luke 13:34–35; 21:6; John 2:19–21)
Predictions of the coming of the Son of Man (Matthew 10:23, 32–33; 12:40; 13:40–41; 16:27; 24:27, 37–39; Mark 8:38; 13:26–27; 14:62; Luke 9:26; 11:30; 12:8–9; 17:24, 26)
Predictions of the end of the age. The longest prophetic section in the gospels is the end-time discourse of Jesus in Mark 13:1–32 (compare Matthew 24:1–36; Luke 21:5–33). A number of predictions concerning the destruction of Jerusalem and the end of the age are woven into a long discourse to the disciples.
Prophecy as a Gift for the Believers
According to Acts, the beginning of prophetic activity in early Christianity coincided with the outpouring of the Holy Spirit upon the earliest Christians on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1–21). Peter’s sermon on the Day of Pentecost indicates that the outpouring of the Spirit fulfilled Joel’s prophecy (Acts 2:4, 17–21; compare Joel 2:28–32). Further, since the Spirit had been poured out upon all early Christians (that Spirit being a Spirit of prophecy), all are actual or potential prophets.
According to 1 Corinthians 12:28 (see also Romans 12:6; Ephesians 4:11), God has appointed in the church first apostles, second prophets, and third teachers. The names of several early Christian prophets have been preserved. These include Agabus (Acts 11:27–28; 21:10–11); Judas and Silas (15:32); Barnabas, Simeon Niger, Lucius of Cyrene, Manaen, and Paul (13:1); and the four virgin daughters of Philip the evangelist (21:8–9). John, the author of Revelation, was certainly a prophet (Revelation 1:3; 22:9, 18), though he never directly assumed that title.
The Role of the Christian Prophet
Christian prophets were leaders in early Christian communities (1 Corinthians 12:28; Ephesians 4:11), who exercised their gift [of prophecy] in church gatherings (Acts 13:1–3; 11:27–28; 1 Corinthians 12–14; Revelation 1:10). Since the Spirit of God was particularly active in Christian worship, prophecy was a major means whereby God communicated with his people. Prophets, like apostles and teachers, did not hold offices in local communities like bishops, elders, and deacons. Rather, they were chosen, not by individual congregations, but by divine commission. So they were honored and accepted in all local communities.
Early Christian prophets were both itinerant and settled. Itinerant prophets [who travel from place to place] seem to have been more prevalent in Syria-Palestine and Asia Minor than in the European churches.
The Function of Prophecy
According to Paul, the central purpose of prophecy (as of all other spiritual gifts) is that of building up or edifying the church. According to 1 Corinthians 14:3, one “who prophesies speaks to men for their edification, encouragement, and comfort.” Again, in 1 Corinthians 14:4, Paul states that the “one who speaks in a tongue edifies himself, but the one who prophesies edifies the church.” Paul discussed the subject of spiritual gifts, particularly prophecy and speaking in tongues, because the Corinthians had placed an excessive emphasis on speaking in tongues. Paul did not object to speaking in tongues (1 Corinthians 14:18, 39), but he did point out that the church could not be edified by it because it was generally incomprehensible. Prophecy, which consisted of comprehensible speech inspired by the Holy Spirit, contributed to the mutual edification, encouragement, and consolation of all present (1 Corinthians 14:20–25, 39).
The Content of Christian Prophecy
We know only a little about the content of prophecies given in the first-century church. Prophecies occasionally provided divine guidance in making important decisions in early Christianity. Through a prophetic message, Paul and Barnabas were selected for a particular mission (Acts 13:1–3; compare 1 Timothy 1:18; 4:14). Probably through a prophecy, Paul and Timothy were forbidden to preach the gospel in Asia (Acts 16:6). They were similarly forbidden by the Spirit of Jesus to go into Bithynia (verse 7).
Perhaps the most frequent use of prophecy is the prediction of the future. Agabus predicted a universal famine (11:28) and the imminent arrest of Paul (21:11). Other prophets had also predicted his impending imprisonment (20:23). The prophecies contained in the Revelation of John are all oriented toward the future events that will gradually unfold in the last days. Yet the purpose of John’s elaborate prophecy is not to satisfy the curiosity of his audience but rather to comfort and encourage them as they go through persecution.
The Form of Christian Prophecy
Unlike the prophets of the Old Testament, Christian prophets did not always present their message in the form of a direct speech from God or Jesus. There are few, if any, formal indicators of the presence of prophetic speech in early Christian literature. The book of Revelation is one notable exception.