Reference in early Old Testament times to people whose job was to write down information. After the Babylonian exile, scribes were a class of scholars who taught, copied, and interpreted the Jewish law for the people. They appear in the Gospels primarily as opponents of Jesus.
Scribes Before the Babylonian Exile
The ability to read and write was not common in ancient Israel. Professionals were needed in the various aspects of public life. This appears to be the earliest biblical understanding of the term “scribe” and has no particular religious meaning. Scribes were employed to keep accounts or put in writing
legal information (Jeremiah 32:12),
military data (2 Chronicles 26:11),
other public documents (Judges 8:14; Isaiah 50:1), or
personal correspondence (Jeremiah 36:18).
Scribes were essential to royal administration. A chief scribe often functioned as
a court recorder (1 Kings 4:3; 2 Chronicles 24:11),
an adviser (2 Samuel 8:16–17; 2 Kings 18:18; 22:12; 1 Chronicles 27:32; Isaiah 36:3), and
as a financial overseer (2 Kings 22:3–4).
Scribes were associated with the priesthood as well by keeping records for the temple (1 Chronicles 24:6; 2 Chronicles 34:13–15).
Scribes After the Babylonian Exile
After the Jewish people returned from exile, Judaism was restored under Ezra and Nehemiah. The term “scribe” began to refer more specifically to those who gathered together, studied, and interpreted the Torah (Jewish law). Scribes became a separate occupation of teachers who were able to preserve accurately the law of Moses and interpret it for the Jewish people. At the beginning of this period, Ezra appears as the ideal “scribe, an expert in the commandments and statutes of the LORD” (Ezra 7:11).
The book of Sirach describes the scribe as one who is able to deeply understand the hidden meanings of texts (Sirach 39:2–3). This understanding is a result of his diligent study of the Law, the Prophets, and Writings (38:24 and the following verses; 39:1). Therefore, a scribe is able to serve as judge and counsel for the people and the state (38:33; 39:4–8). Because of his invaluable place in a society governed by the Torah, the scribe is worthy of praise and great respect throughout the generations (39:9). By the second century BC, the scribes were a rather distinct class in Jewish society. From this time forward, they became closely linked with the rise of the Pharisees, and most scribes were affiliated with them (see the close connection in the New Testament: Matthew 5:20; 12:38; 15:1; Mark 7:5; Luke 6:7).
Training and Status
At first, scribes were trained within priestly families which shared the same occupation. Being part of one of these families guaranteed what job they would have (1 Chronicles 2:55). Later, the training became available to people from all social classes. By the time of Jesus, there were many influential scribes from families of non-priests. Training began at an early age under the personal supervision of a teacher, or rabbi. The rabbi taught all aspects of Jewish law and its interpretation.
Since the written law of Moses could not directly address the conditions after the exile, the scribe’s skills became a significant contribution. The “oral law” that they established was considered equal to the written Jewish law. Thus it was equally binding for those desiring to please God (see Mark 7:6–13). Because of their expertise, scribes participated in the Sanhedrin, the council of elders that acted as the highest court in Israel. The scribes were the only members outside the highest social class of high priests and elders to be represented in this Jewish supreme court (Matthew 26:57; Mark 14:43, 53; Luke 22:66; Acts 23:9).
The scribes were greatly respected within the Jewish community. They were the authoritative instructors of the Jewish law both within the temple (Luke 2:46) and within the various synagogues of Judea and Galilee (5:17). They were also important members of the Sanhedrin. They wore special robes (Mark 12:38) with memorial fringes at the bottom and phylacteries, or “prayer boxes,” hanging from the arms (Matthew 23:5). Such clothing made their presence obvious and caused the common people to rise or bow when they passed (Mark 12:38). They were respectfully called “rabbi” or “master” (Matthew 23:7) and were given the place of honor during worship and social affairs (Matthew 23:2; Mark 12:39; Luke 20:46).
The Scribes in Jesus’s Day
During Jesus’s ministry, the scribes mainly appeared as those paying extremely close attention to the demands of the Jewish law. Luke refers to the scribes as “men of the Law”, thereby describing to his gentile (or non-Jewish) listeners and readers the scribes’ chief function as interpreters of the Jewish law. Often scribes were critical of Jesus. They accused him of violating the Jewish law on many occasions:
when he forgave sins (Matthew 9:1–3; Luke 5:17–26)
when they believed that he did not observe the Sabbath day appropriately, both through work (Luke 6:1–2) and healing (verses 6–11)
when they noticed he was not following their ceremonial washings (Mark 7:2–5) and ignoring their practice of fasting (Luke 5:33–39)
Not surprisingly, they especially disapproved of Jesus’s practice of spending time with the unclean (ritually impure) and outcasts of Jewish society (Mark 2:16–17; Luke 15:1–2). They frequently tried to trick Jesus with questions about the Jewish law (Mark 7:5; 12:28, 35; Luke 11:53; John 8:3–4). They demanded that Jesus make his identity clear (Matthew 12:38) and reveal the source of his authority to perform miracles (Mark 3:22; Luke 20:1–4). Even though a small number of them did accept Jesus (Matthew 8:19; 13:52; Mark 12:32; John 3:1–2), they usually were hostile toward him. It was also due to his rising popularity among the people, which posed a threat to their own authority (Matthew 7:29) and to the safety of the city (Matthew 21:15; Mark 11:18).
Another major contributing factor to their opposition to Jesus was how he exposed their hypocrisy and corruption. Jesus openly accused them of seeking public recognition (Matthew 23:5–7; Mark 12:38–39; Luke 11:43). They outwardly appeared to be correct and holy, but were corrupt in their hearts (Matthew 23:25–28; Luke 11:39–41). That is, they seemed to follow all the rules but they were not sincere.
Jesus also attacked the principle of the oral Jewish law taught by the scribes, declaring that it was a “heavy burden” that the scribes themselves did not even follow (Matthew 23:2–4, 13–22; Luke 11:46). They emphasized minor points of the Jewish law, yet were also guilty of ignoring the more important concerns of justice, mercy, and faith (Matthew 23:23–24; Mark 12:40; Luke 11:42). They regarded themselves as the descendants of the Old Testament prophets, but Jesus told them that they would have killed the prophets if they had lived in their day (Matthew 23:29–36; Luke 20:9–19).
Thus, it is not surprising that the scribes were eager to arrest Jesus (Mark 14:1; Luke 11:53). His interpretation of the Jewish law threatened their position and authority within the community. The scribes joined with their usual opponents (the Jewish priests) to plot Jesus’s arrest (Mark 14:43). When Jesus appeared before them and the rest of the Sanhedrin, they participated in constructing a case against him that could result in his death (Matthew 26:57–66). When taking Jesus before Herod, they stood by and shouted their accusations with the others (Luke 23:10). Finally, they participated with other members of the Sanhedrin in mocking Jesus on the cross (Matthew 27:41–43). Before the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, the scribes continued to work with the Sanhedrin to oppose the early Christian church. They also helped get Stephen killed because of his faith (Acts 6:12–14).