The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs is part of the Jewish pseudepigrapha (ancient writings that claim to be written by famous biblical people but were not). The book is called a testament because it presents the final speeches of each of Jacob’s twelve sons before they die. The series begins with the words of Reuben, Jacob’s firstborn, and ends with those of Benjamin, his youngest son.
Each patriarch gathers his children to tell stories about his life and to teach lessons from his experiences. In their speeches, the patriarchs warn against certain sins and encourage their families to live with faith, justice, and self-control. They also include predictions about the future of their descendants, describing both their failures and their hope for salvation. The account of the patriarch’s life serves as a guide for the future of his descendants. At the end of each testament, the patriarch dies and is buried at Hebron, the place where the ancestors of Israel were laid to rest.
The idea of this kind of "testament" was probably inspired by the farewell speeches in the Old Testament. For instance, in Genesis 49, Jacob gathers his sons to tell them about their future before he dies (Genesis 49:33). In a similar way, the aged Joshua called together the elders, leaders, judges, and officers of Israel to instruct them before his death (Joshua 23:2; 24:1). King David also gave his son Solomon final advice, urging him to obey God’s commands and live faithfully (1 Kings 2:1–12).
The current versions of the text in Slavonic, Armenian, and Greek are from the second or third century AD. However, scholars generally agree that an original text in a Semitic language, either Hebrew or Aramaic, was written by one or more authors in the third or second century BC. Later, Christians added some sections to this earlier Jewish text.
Examples of these later Christian additions appear in:
Testament of Simeon 6:7
Testament of Levi 10:2
Testament of Dan 6:9
Testament of Naphtali 4:5
Testament of Asher 7:3–4
Testament of Joseph 19:11
Testament of Benjamin 3:8; 9:2–4
It seems that both Jewish and Christian writers revised the testaments over many centuries. The result is a Jewish document from about the third century BC that went through multiple Jewish and Christian revisions over a long period of time. These testaments became very popular in the tenth century, especially the prophecies of the patriarchs and their secret knowledge.
Below is a summary of each testament of the patriarchs. The excerpts are from R. H. Charles’s Pseudepigrapha, pages 282–367.
The Testament of Reuben
Reuben begins his testament by remembering the time he dishonored his father Jacob. He recalls with sorrow how he had sexual relations with his father’s concubine, Bilhah, while she was drunk. This event is central to his confession and teaching.
Reuben strongly warns his sons to avoid immoral behavior. He tells them to be careful in their relationships with women, because lust and temptation can lead to sin. His harsh opinions about women probably reflect the shame and pain that resulted from his own failure and his broken relationship with his father.
Reuben predicts that his descendants will become jealous of the descendants of Levi. However, he says they will not be able to defeat them. He encourages his children to live in peace, to love one another, and to be honest with their neighbors.
At the end of the testament, Reuben dies and is buried at Hebron.
The Testament of Simeon
The patriarch Simeon is described as a strong warrior. In the biblical story of Joseph being sold into slavery, Simeon admits he wanted to kill Joseph instead of selling him (Genesis 37:25–28). As punishment, God caused his right hand to wither for seven days. Simeon warns his sons against envy, deceit, and fornication. He predicts that they will attempt to harm the sons of Levi but prophesies that the sons of Levi will remain superior.
Simeon looks forward to a time of peace and joy when the "Most High" would be blessed (6:4–7a). Verse 7b is a Christian addition that says: "Because God has taken a body, eaten with men, and saved men." Simeon tells his sons that they should obey the descendants of Levi and Judah. This is because salvation will come from them. He predicts a high priest will come from Levi and a king from Judah's family line. Simeon ends by predicting that God will save all gentiles (non-Jewish nations) and Israel. The mention of the gentiles was likely added by a later Christian writer.
The Testament of Levi
Levi’s testament contains a series of dreams that he shares with his sons. In these dreams, God reveals that the descendants of Levi and Judah will play a special role in the future. Levi predicts that through his family line and that of Judah, the Lord will “appear among men” to bring salvation to all peoples (2:11). The descendants of Levi would be “as the sun to all the seed of Israel” (4:3b). In one dream, he sees that his sons will receive the blessings of the priesthood (8:2–3). Levi also predicts that a king from Judah will establish a new priesthood ministering to both Jews and gentiles (non-Jews).
Later editors added some Christian material to the text. Chapter ten includes a statement that because of sin, the sons of Levi would mistreat "the Savior of the world, Christ" (10:2). As a result, they would be scattered worldwide. Chapter thirteen focuses on wisdom and the importance of following the law. Chapter 16 introduces a prophecy about the end times (an eschatological prediction). It says that the descendants of Levi will turn away from God for seventy weeks.
The next chapter explains these seventy weeks. During this time, there will be a new priesthood in each jubilee period. The first priesthood will be great, and its priest will have such a close relationship with God that he will call God “Father.” The second priesthood will "be conceived in the sorrow of beloved ones" but will be glorified by all (17:3). The following five priesthoods will be characterized by sorrow, pain, hatred, and darkness.
Eventually, a new priest will bring peace to all the earth (18:4). Sin will end, as this new priest will have a spirit of understanding and sanctification resting upon him (18:9). The book ends with a warning to choose between the law of the Lord and the works of Beliar (another name for Belial, meaning “the evil one”). Levi’s sons promise to obey God’s law. After Levi dies, they bury him at Hebron.
The Testament of Judah
At the beginning of the testament, Judah tells his descendants that he had been promised by his father that he would be king: “And it came to pass, when I became a man, that my father blessed me, saying, You shall be a king, prospering in all things” (1:6). He remembers his youth, when he was strong and able to defeat wild animals. Judah obeyed the commandments and resisted wrong sexual desire. He predicted his descendants would do what is evil because they will love money and be tempted by beautiful women (chapter 17).
In chapter 21, Judah predicts that the Lord will give a kingdom to his descendants and the priesthood to Levi's sons. Chapter 24 includes a Christian addition about the Christ. It predicts that from the star of Jacob one will arise that will be without sin and from it a rod of righteousness will grow to the gentiles (24:6). The testament ends with hope for the future when “they who are poor for the Lord’s sake shall be made rich and they who are put to death for the Lord’s sake shall awake to life” (25:4). Judah dies and is buried at Hebron.
The Testament of Issachar
The last words of this patriarch are unique because they show Issachar as “upright” and free from wrongdoing. This contrasts with many of his brothers. He predicts the priesthood will come from Levi and kingship will come from Judah's family line. In chapter 6, Issachar predicts his children will follow Beliar. However, if they recognize God's mercy and follow Issachar's example, "every spirit of Beliar will flee from them." His final request is to be buried at Hebron with his ancestors.
The Testament of Zebulun
The patriarch Zebulun begins his testament by calling himself a "good gift" to his parents. Like Issachar, he says he does not know of any sin he committed except in thought. If he has done wrong, it is only because of ignorance. Zebulun claims he did not support his brothers' actions against Joseph. He would have told his father about Joseph's situation, but the brothers agreed that they would kill anyone who revealed the secret (1:6).
He states that without his intervention, the brothers would have killed Joseph (1:7). The brothers were so suspicious of Zebulun that they watched him until they sold Joseph. Later, in 5:3, Zebulun teaches a lesson also found in the New Testament and among Jewish rabbis (religious teachers with authority): "Have compassion in your hearts, my children, because as a man does to his neighbor, so will the Lord do to him."
Zebulun gives an example from his own life to show this truth. The sons of his brothers became sick and died because of their cruelty to Joseph. This was "because they showed no mercy in their hearts" (5:5). However, Zebulun's sons remained healthy.
Zebulun predicts that Israel would divide into two kingdoms and that both would end up being conquered by non-Jewish nations. However, the people will repent and the Lord will return them to their land and Jerusalem (9:8). In chapter 10, Zebulun predicts that after his death, he will "arise as a ruler among his sons" (10:2). He promises rewards for those who follow the laws and punishment for the ungodly. Zebulun dies at the end of his testament and is buried in Hebron.
The Testament of Dan
The patriarch Dan regrets that he was jealous of Joseph. He indicates that he was controlled by the spirit of Beliar. He reveals that he wanted to kill Joseph so that he could have the love of his father. Dan warns against the spirits of lying and anger, urging his descendants to love truth and long-suffering. He advises them to follow the commandments and to "love the Lord through all your life and one another with a true heart" (5:3).
Dan predicts that his sons will “in the last days” depart from the Lord and thus provoke the anger of the sons of Levi. They will also fight against the sons of Judah. His sons will not defeat the sons of Levi and Judah because an angel of the Lord will guide them.
Dan also says he read in the book of Enoch that Satan and other evil spirits will lead the sons of Levi, Judah, and Dan into sin. They will become captives and will suffer, facing plagues like those that came upon Egypt and all the troubles of the gentile nations. However, when they return to the Lord, they will receive mercy and peace.
Dan predicts that someone will arise from the tribes of Judah and Levi whom he calls "the salvation of the Lord." The “one arising” would make war against Beliar and execute an “everlasting vengeance” against their enemies (5:10). Dan's final warning is to be on guard against Satan and his spirits and to draw near to God and the angel "that intercedes for you" (6:2).
The last section urges Dan's sons to teach their children everything they have learned so that "the savior of the gentiles may receive" them. A later Christian addition describes this savior as true, patient, gentle, and humble (6:9). When Dan dies, they bury him near Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
The Testament of Naphtali
According to the testament, Naphtali is 130 years old when he gives his last words. He is described as being in good health, but the morning after a feast, he realizes he will die. He then gathers his sons around him. Naphtali had a strong sense of order that shaped how he understood both people and the universe.
For him, the "gentile problem" is that they abandoned the Lord. They changed their order to obey "stocks and stones." This change in order was the problem in Sodom and also caused the great flood of Noah's time.
Naphtali reads from the book of Enoch that his sons will depart from the Lord and walk “according to all lawlessness of the Gentiles” (4:1). He predicts that his descendants will be taken captive because of their sins, and afterward, a “few” will return to the Lord. Then God will bring them back to their land. After their return to the land, his sons will forget the Lord and "become ungodly" and they will be scattered across the earth. They will stay this way until the compassion of the Lord comes and a man working righteousness and mercy comes to them.
Naphtali describes two dreams he had at age 40. In the first dream, he saw the sun and moon stand still. Isaac told his grandsons to run and take hold of the sun and moon, each according to his strength. Levi took hold of the sun, and Judah seized the moon. Both of them were lifted up with the sun and the moon. A bull with two large horns and eagle wings appears. The other sons tried to seize the bull but failed. However, Joseph came and took hold of the bull and ascended “up with him on high” (5:7). Then Naphtali predicts that the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, and Syrians will take the 12 tribes of Israel into captivity.
In the other dream, he saw a ship sailing on the sea of Jamnia without sailors or a pilot. The ship had the words "The ship of Jacob" written on it (6:2). Jacob and his sons were on the ship. When a storm came, Jacob left them. The ship eventually broke apart because of the storm. Joseph sailed away in a small boat, while the other brothers each hung on to one of nine pieces of wood, with Levi and Judah sharing one. Levi's prayers apparently helped all the brothers reach the shore safely. When Naphtali tells his father these dreams, Jacob reveals to him that all these events must be fulfilled.
Naphtali urges his sons to stay united to Levi and Judah because through them, “shall salvation arise to Israel” (8:2). Through Levi and Judah, righteous people from other nations will also be gathered. Naphtali dies and is buried in Hebron.
The Testament of Gad
The patriarch Gad is represented as having hated Joseph. He hated Joseph because Joseph told their father that Gad and some of his brothers were eating the best parts of the flocks while they were supposed to be caring for them.
In his testament, Gad confesses this sin of hatred to his sons. He warns them against harboring hatred because it only brings anguish: “For as love would quicken even the dead and would call back them that are condemned to die, so hatred would slay the living and those that had sinned venially it would not suffer to live” (4:6).
Gad teaches that repentance gives understanding to the soul and leads the mind to salvation. He urges his sons to honor the families of Levi and Judah, because through them comes the salvation of Israel. He predicts that his descendants will act with wickedness and corruption. The testament ends sadly. Gad asks to be buried near his fathers and is buried at Hebron.
The Testament of Asher
Asher speaks about the struggle between good and evil spirits. Each person must choose which to follow. He predicts that his descendants will act in ways that are against God and will not obey his law. Because of this, they will fall into the hands of their enemies and be scattered among the nations.
They will remain so until the “Most High” visits the earth. The text says, “coming Himself [as man with men eating and drinking] … he shall save Israel and all the Gentiles” (7:3–4). This sentence was likely added later by Christians. It teaches that God himself would come to live among people and bring salvation to all nations.
After this prediction, Asher declares that the Lord will gather his people again because of his mercy and for the sake of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. When Asher dies, his body is buried at Hebron.
The Testament of Joseph
Joseph calls himself the “beloved of Israel” (1:2). Although he faced jealousy and threats of death, he did not turn from God. In his testament, he tells the story of being sold into slavery. In chapter 1, the verses also follow the same parallel structure. In each verse, the first part tells about Joseph’s suffering, and the second part tells how the Lord helped him. For example: “I was sold into slavery, and the Lord of all made me free: I was taken into captivity, and his strong hand succored me. I was beset with hunger and the Lord himself nourished me” (1:5).
Joseph describes his time in Egypt in great detail. Eight chapters tell how the Egyptian woman tried to tempt him. Joseph resisted her and remained faithful to God. Because of this, the Lord rewarded him. He tells his sons to fear the Lord in all they do. Anyone who follows the law of the Lord will be loved by God, and this is the key to success. Joseph encourages his children to do good to anyone who would do evil to them and to pray for their enemies. He gives his own attitude toward his brothers as an example.
Joseph also urges his sons to observe the commandments of the Lord and to honor Levi and Judah for “the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world, who saves all the Gentiles and Israel” (19:11) will arise from them. He predicts that Israel will be enslaved in Egypt but also rescued. He directs his sons to take his bones with them when they leave Egypt. The testament concludes by indicating that after their return from Egypt, the Israelites buried the bones of Joseph at Hebron.
The Testament of Benjamin
The last patriarch gives his testament when he is 125 years old. He encourages his children to love the Lord and keep his commandments. He told them to follow the example of Joseph, who forgave his brothers and did not hold their sins against them.
Benjamin recounts Jacob's prediction that in Joseph will be fulfilled the prophecy “concerning the Lamb of God and Savior of the world, and that a blameless one shall be delivered up for lawless men, and a sinless one shall die for ungodly men in the blood of the covenant, for the salvation of the gentiles and of Israel and shall destroy Beliar and his servants” (3:8). This part of the testament shows Joseph as an innocent sufferer, one who did not deserve punishment and had no reason to feel guilt. Because of this, later Christian writers likely added material connecting Joseph’s suffering to that of the Messiah. In the same way, the Christian Messiah suffered in innocence to save ungodly people.
Benjamin believed that there were evildoers among his sons. Having read in the book of Enoch, he predicts that they will commit “fornication with the fornication of Sodom” and only a few will survive (9:1). There would be a remnant from each tribe as the 12 tribes and the gentiles would gather at the last temple. Their salvation would be a result of the “Most High” sending his only “begotten prophet” (9:2). He would be lifted up upon a tree and the veil of the temple would be rent. Then the Spirit of God would be passed on to the gentiles. Benjamin admonishes his sons that if they walk in holiness according to the commandments of the Lord, all of Israel will be gathered to the Lord. When Benjamin dies, he is buried at Hebron.
From these short summaries, it is clear that the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs include both Jewish and Christian additions. These additions go beyond simple edits. The final collection shows teachings about two messiahs, the command to love both God and neighbor, moral and theological lessons, and the idea that salvation is both for Jews and for non-Jews. However, it is very difficult to know exactly when these ideas were added or which religion they originally belonged to.