God uses different ways to set apart his people for himself. The nature and content of "law" may change, but the goal stays the same: to grow and become more like God.
Preview
- Historical Context
- Law in the Old Testament
- Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East
- Old Testament Laws
- Purposes of the Law
Historical Context
When God created humans in his image, God gave them glory, authority, and daily needs (Genesis 1:27–30). However, as a ruler of God's creation on earth, humans had to show loyalty to God. God set a simple test for this: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Humans were forbidden to eat its fruit (Genesis 2:17). Their disobedience showed they were unfit for fellowship with God. They were rebellious and naturally deceitful, as seen in the stories of:
Cain (Genesis 4:1–16)
The generation of the great flood (Genesis 6:1–13)
Ham and Canaan (Genesis 9:18–26; Genesis 10:6–20)
The tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1–9)
In the middle of all this, the Lord graciously called Abraham. He promised to bless Abraham, his descendants, and the families of the earth who shared their faith (Genesis 12:2–3; 17:4–7). Abraham responded to God with faith (Genesis 15:6). He willingly observed circumcision as a sign of God's covenant with Abraham (Genesis 17:10; see also 21:4). He lived with integrity before God (17:1).
Abraham learned that God had chosen him so his family could stand out by doing what is right and just (Genesis 18:19). The Lord was pleased with Abraham, who, even without detailed laws, was a man of integrity. His heart was right with God, and he willingly followed God's commands.
Abraham, known as the father of faith, was also the father of the faithful. The Lord said that Abraham obeyed him and followed his requirements, commands, decrees, and laws (Genesis 26:5). His faith led to righteous actions (James 2:21–24).
However, Israel, blessed by the Lord with many descendants, the exodus, the crossing of the Red Sea, and his presence, did not respond with faith. They complained at Mount Sinai, Kadesh-barnea, and in the plains of Moab. They showed themselves to be rebellious and stubborn people (Exodus 32:9; 33:3, 5; 34:9; Deuteronomy 9:6, 13).
Despite their behavior, the Lord remained faithful to Abraham by making a covenant with them. Israel became his people, his royal priesthood, and his holy nation (Exodus 19:5–6; Deuteronomy 26:18–19). He gave Israel the Ten Commandments, the law, and the covenant, symbolized by the two tablets of the Testimony (Exodus 32:15–16). Even after Moses broke them in anger because of the people's idol worship of the golden calf, the Lord renewed his covenant by rewriting the words of the covenant (Exodus 34:28).
The context in which the law was given shows God's grace and patience with Israel's sins and his plan to use Israel in his redemption plan for the world (Exodus 34:6–7). It also shows Israel's immaturity and stubbornness. Therefore, the law in the Old Testament has both positive and negative purposes.
Law in the Old Testament
The Old Testament uses many words for God's law. The most general word is Torah, which means instruction of any kind, whether religious or secular, written or oral, divine or human. In Israel, the law was God's law, given through Moses (Exodus 20:19; Deuteronomy 5:23–27). Because Israel rejected God's direct messages, Moses, God's servant, delivered the law (John 1:17).
English Bible translations use different words for law, including:
Word (see Exodus 24:3; 34:27)
Ordinance (see Exodus 24:3; Deuteronomy 4:1
Decree (see Deuteronomy 6:20; 1 Kings 2:3)
Statute (see Leviticus 3:17; 10:11; Numbers 9:12, 14; 30:16; Deuteronomy 6:2)
Command or commandment (see Deuteronomy 6:1, 25)
Precepts (a Hebrew word used only in Psalms; see Psalm 119:4, 15, 27, 40, 45, 56, 63, 69, 78, 87, 93, 94, 100, 104, 110, 128, 134, 141, 159, 168, 173)
Testimonies (see Deuteronomy 4:45)
The "way" or "ways" (see 1 Kings 2:3; Psalms 18:21; 25:9; 37:34)
Other translations also use words like stipulation, requirements, and judgment.
These words belong to a group of words with related meanings. It is not easy to tell apart the different types of laws. Generally, "the words" refer to human duties toward God, especially the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1; 34:27). The "judgments" or "ordinances" include civil rules and duties to others and society (Exodus 21:1–23:9). These passages often use an "if... then..." format.
In Leviticus and religious texts, "ordinances" specifically mean ceremonial laws. However, in other contexts, especially when listed with other law terms, it means any rule or expectation. The "commandments" are rules given by a higher authority. Although the Old Testament has many words for law, the meaning of one word often overlaps with others, especially in phrases like:
"The statutes and ordinances" (Deuteronomy 4:1, 5; 5:1)
"The commandments and statutes and ordinances" (6:1)
"Walk in His ways and to keep His statutes, commandments, ordinances, and decrees" (1 Kings 2:3)
The reason for following God's law is found in the actions and presence of the Lord. The introduction to the Ten Commandments reminds us of God's powerful deeds: “I am the LORD your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery” (Exodus 20:2).
Through Israel's redemption, the revelation at Mount Sinai, and making Israel his people, God acted as a "father." He adopted Israel as his children and declared them holy (Exodus 19:6; 31:13; Leviticus 20:8; 22:32; see also Romans 9:4). Redemption and being made holy are often linked, and they cannot be separated: “I am the LORD who sanctifies you” (Leviticus 22:32b).
Obedience is simply based on God's name: “I am the LORD” (see Leviticus 18:6, 21, 30; 19:10, 14, 16, 18, 28, 30–31, 34, 36–37). The need for practical holiness is also based on experiencing God's presence. The Lord commanded Israel to be holy because he is holy (Leviticus 11:44–45; 19:2). The “holy one of Israel” lived among his people (Exodus 25:8; 29:45; Numbers 5:3; 35:34).
How could rebellious Israel understand what God wanted without clear moral, social, civil, and religious rules? God saw they lacked the desire to serve him as a loyal people (Deuteronomy 5:29). By nature, Israel could not create a moral and religious system to please God. Due to their stubbornness, God had to clearly reveal his will.
Israelite Law and the Ancient Near East
Israel's law reflected the practices of its ancient Near Eastern context. Ancient Babylonian law codes, like those of Eshnunna and Hammurabi, show similarities with the biblical codes. These similarities include both cases and legal formulations, known as casuistic law.
Israelite law is unique because it is God's law. Moses acted as the mediator, not the creator, of the law. This differs from a king, like Hammurabi, who enforced a legal code. The Lord himself gave Israel its laws (see Deuteronomy 4:5–8).
Laws in the ancient Near East focused on organizing society. However, Israel's laws regulated every aspect of life: personal, family, social, and religious. These laws taught Israel to distinguish between holy and unholy, clean and unclean, and just and unjust.
Old Testament Laws
The legal texts of the Old Testament are not in a single book or section. The laws show a shift from the desert setting in Exodus to the land setting in Deuteronomy. The Old Testament legal material is complex, with many variations and repetitions. It appears in:
Leviticus
Deuteronomy (chapters 5–26)
The Ten Commandments
The commandments are called the "words" that God spoke (Exodus 20:1). They are found in Exodus 20:1–17 and Deuteronomy 5:6–21, with small differences and individual commandments appearing elsewhere (for example, Exodus 34:14, 17, 21; Leviticus 19:1–8; Deuteronomy 27:15–16).
Initially given to Israel as part of the covenant, these commandments now form the moral foundation of Christianity. The New Testament shows the ongoing importance of this moral law. Jesus established his authority as the interpreter of all commandments (Matthew 5:17–48; 12:1–14; 23:23–24). He summarized the law as love for God and others (see Matthew 22:37–40; Mark 12:28–34; Luke 10:27; Romans 13:8–9; Galatians 5:14). As the Lord of the Sabbath, Jesus linked the Sabbath to the other commandments (Matthew 12:8).
The apostle Paul also supported the law, with his "ethics of the Spirit" showing how believers internalize God's law in their hearts (see Romans 8:1–17; 12:1–15:13; 1 Corinthians 2:6–16; 5:1–8; 10:23–11:1; Galatians 5:13–6:10; Ephesians 4:17–6:9; Philippians 2:1–18; Colossians 3:1–4:6; 1 Thessalonians 4:1–12; 5:12–24; 2 Thessalonians 3:6–15; 1 Timothy 6:3–10; Titus 3:1–11).
The Lord wrote the commandments on both sides of the two tablets (Exodus 32:15–16). It is unclear if the tablets were duplicates, how the commandments were divided, or how they were numbered. They were kept in the ark of the covenant as a testimony to the covenant (Exodus 40:20).
The Book of the Covenant (Exodus 20:23–23:19)
The covenant code aimed to show and start the legal system for Israel to reflect God's focus on justice, love, peace, and life's value. The laws in the Book of the Covenant are mostly case-based. They manage life in a farming society with servants, donkeys, bulls, oxen, sheep, and grain fields. The rules address:
Relationships with women (including widows), foreigners, and orphans
Legal issues (liability, damages, ownership)
Often, the law requires repayment, but not when human life is involved (Exodus 21:12–29; 22:2–3), especially concerning family (Exodus 21:15–17, 22–25). The rules about punishments that went with these laws emphasize the importance of human life, protected by the lex talionis (“law of retaliation”).
The lex talionis does not show a lack of forgiveness in the Old Testament. Instead, it was a legal principle to ensure fairness and justice in society. The Book of the Covenant explains through principles and examples how Israel should live as a nation, following God's law and applying it justly (without bias or unfairness), lovingly (with care for all involved), and peaceably.
The Priestly Law
God's focus on holiness and purity is shown in the priestly laws (Exodus 25–31; 35–40; Leviticus 1–27; Numbers 4–10). These rules address:
Building the tabernacle
Setting apart and appointing priests for service to God
Purity rules
Holy days
Vows
The tabernacle was at the center of Israel's camp in the wilderness. It represented God's presence with his people. The priests and Levites camped around the tabernacle to serve and protect God's holiness. All the tribes were arranged around the tabernacle.
Although tribe members could not access all parts of the tabernacle, they needed to be ceremonially clean to live in the camp. Anyone who was ceremonially unclean (Leviticus 13:46; Numbers 5:1–3) or had committed a serious sin was sent outside the camp (Leviticus 24:10–23; Numbers 15:32–36). This rule also applied to objects that became unclean (Leviticus 8:17; 9:11).
Through specific offerings and sacrifices (Leviticus 1–7; 16; Numbers 15:1–31; 28), God assured Israel, both individually and as a group, of forgiveness for unintentional sins. The offerings and sacrifices represented the purpose of the person offering them, whether for forgiveness, dedication, or fellowship.
The priests and Levites taught God's law, applied its rules, and served in courts (Deuteronomy 17:8–13; 31:9–13).
The Holiness Code (Leviticus 17–26)
The holiness code is an important part of the book of Leviticus. Here Moses spoke to all of Israel (see Leviticus 17:2; 18:2; 19:2; 20:2; 21:24; 23:2; 24:2; 25:2; 26:46; 27:2).
The laws tell people what they must do and must not do. These laws include:
Rules about where to make offerings to God and not eating meat that still has blood in it (chapter 17)
Rules against marrying or having sexual relationships with close relatives (chapter 18)
Regulations for godliness, holiness, justice, and love in society (chapter 19)
The penal code assigns penalties for breaking these rules (chapter 20; 24:10–23). Chapters 21–24 apply religious rules to priests and all Israelites. The sabbatical year and the Year of Jubilee manage debt forgiveness, freeing people, and returning land (chapter 25).
The holiness code describes the qualities needed for a holy people: devotion to God through offerings, sacrifices, and priests, and love for others as shown in concern for justice, peace, freedom, the value of human life, and family care. Many laws reflect the spirit of the Ten Commandments (chapter 19).
The holiness code in chapter 26 includes both promises and curses. The curses warn of exile if people break the laws. However, the laws and penalties always reflect the Lord's grace. He promises to forgive the people's sins and renew the broken covenant (Leviticus 26:44–45).
Laws of Deuteronomy
The Deuteronomic laws explain and apply the Book of the Covenant for Israel's new situation. Israel was about to enter the Promised Land when Moses shared God's law with them (Deuteronomy 1:5). The Book of the Covenant's impersonal nature becomes personal through Moses' strong appeal. He urges Israel to stay loyal to the Lord, the covenant, and its rules. The Deuteronomic laws imagine the people in the Promised Land with:
A central place of worship (Deuteronomy 12:5, 11–18; 14:23; 15:20; 16:5–7, 16, 21; 17:8; 18:6; 26:2; 31:11)
A king (Deuteronomy 17:14–20)
Blessings and curses encourage loyalty to the covenant (chapter 28). Even if Israel breaks God's law, the Lord remains gracious and forgiving.
Purposes of the Law
The law given at Mount Sinai aimed to bring Israel closer to God. Despite their rebellion, God used the law to clearly show what sin is (see Romans 5:20; 7:7–8) and how to live a life free from sin and dedicated to the Lord. The law served as Israel's teacher and guardian (Galatians 3:24).
The detailed explanations of the laws in all aspects of life (work, society, family, worship, and nation) played an essential role in God's relationship with Israel. Israel was a nation in a special land with a theocratic government (with God as the highest authority) and needed a set of laws.
At Mount Sinai, Israel could not receive direct revelation, so it had to come through Moses. The laws were detailed because Israel did not naturally understand what God's holiness, justice, righteousness, love, and patience required. They had adopted Egyptian customs and needed to learn God's will through revelation.
However, Moses and the prophets stressed that the law's purpose was not strict adherence for its own sake, also called legalism, or for rewards, called Pharisaism. Following the law was an act of devotion to God. Our Lord confirmed the law's purpose: to create a way of life where one continually seeks God's kingdom and righteousness (Matthew 6:33).
The law of God helps people become holy. God made Israel holy through grace and wanted them to stay holy. Jesus showed how the law reveals sin and leads people to Him. On the cross, Jesus took the law's penalties, fulfilled God's presence, met the Father's atonement expectations, and showed the Father's love.
Jesus, greater than Moses, summarized God's law as loving God and loving others (Matthew 23:23–24; Luke 11:42–44). Jesus taught that obedience is not mainly for rewards but to be like salt (Matthew 5:13) and light (Matthew 5:14–16; see also Ephesians 4:17–5:20), and to produce good deeds (John 15:1–17). God's law aims to:
Gradually change God's children to reflect Jesus (Romans 8:29; 2 Corinthians 3:18; Colossians 3:10)
Imitate the Father (Ephesians 5:1–2)
Be filled with God's Spirit (Galatians 5:18, 22–24)
Jesus gave us the Beatitudes and the Sermon on the Mount to summarize Moses' and the prophets' teachings (Matthew 5–7).
The law aims to help believers grow into maturity. Spiritual maturity was not only for believers after Christ; Old Testament saints also walked with God:
Enoch (Genesis 5:22–24)
These were mature men who lived with integrity before God (see Genesis 17:1; Deuteronomy 18:13; Psalms 15:1–2; 18:26; 101:2, 6; 119:80; Proverbs 11:5).
Maturity, or integrity, is when a believer responds to God without needing specific rules or fearing mistakes. Instead, they find joy in following the Lord's will (Psalms 1:2; 112:1). Since Jesus's arrival and Pentecost, the Holy Spirit has been given to every believer. The Holy Spirit helps internalize God's law (Jeremiah 31:33). The Holy Spirit helps in developing Christian maturity by providing the fruits of godliness more fully (Galatians 5:22–24).
While some Old Testament saints experienced maturity and freedom, it is now God's gift to all his children in Christ (Acts 2:39; 1 Corinthians 12:13). The goal remains the same: "so that the man [person] of God may be complete, fully equipped for every good work" (2 Timothy 3:17). However, the way to achieve this and the status of God's children have greatly improved since Pentecost.