Perfumes in the Bible covered a wide range of materials made from ground minerals, vegetable oils, and roots. These were used from ancient times to enhance personal presentation and produce pleasing fragrances for both secular and religious purposes.
Types of Perfumes in the Bible
The Bible mentions many types of perfumes, such as:
Aloes
Balm
Balsam
Bdellium
Gum
Nard
Sweet cane
Spices
Ointments
Trading of Perfume
Many places traded perfumes:
Arabia traded frankincense and myrrh.
India traded aloes and nard.
Ceylon traded cinnamon.
Persia traded the spice galbanum.
Somaliland traded frankincense.
Biblical references to perfume traders include:
the Arabian (Ishmaelite) merchants who took Joseph to Egypt (Genesis 37:25),
the caravans of the queen of Sheba (1 Kings 10:10), and
the traders of Sheba and Raamah who brought spices to Tyre (Ezekiel 27:22).
Preparation and Use of Perfumes
The Bible mentions those who prepared perfumes. For example, Bezalel made holy anointing oil and sacred incense for the tabernacle (Exodus 37:29). The holy anointing oil was a mix of myrrh, cinnamon, aromatic cane, and cassia in olive oil (Exodus 30:22–25). After the exile to Babylon, some priests were responsible for mixing perfumes for incense (1 Chronicles 9:30). A perfumer is even mentioned among those who built Nehemiah’s wall (Nehemiah 3:8).
Storage of Perfumes
Modern excavations have found various cosmetic vessels and tools, although the Bible says little about these items (Isaiah 3:20; Matthew 26:7; Mark 14:3; Luke 7:37). References to alabaster containers are supported by their use in Egypt and archaeology. Ancient sites in Palestine have revealed many small decorated cosmetic bowls, often made of alabaster, small bottles for scents and oils, and palettes for mixing cosmetics. Some of these items were imported from lands like Egypt.
How Perfumes Were Used
Perfumes had many uses, whether powders or oils. Perfumed oils were used to anoint the body to soothe sun-dried skin (2 Samuel 12:20; Ruth 3:3). King Ahaz once clothed, fed, and anointed men returning from captivity (2 Chronicles 28:15). The rich could afford the “finest oils” (Amos 6:6), though such luxury could be costly (Proverbs 21:17). This is confirmed by evidence from Egypt and Mesopotamia, where oils and ointments were lavishly used in royal palaces.
Ointments and oils that gave off pleasing fragrances were commonly used. The Song of Songs often mentions such ointments (Song of Solomon 1:3), some of which are specifically named:
Myrrh (1:13; 3:6; 4:6; 5:1, 5, 13)
Frankincense (3:6; 4:6)
Fragrant powders (3:6)
Saffron (4:14)
Other parts of the Bible also reference perfumes and ointments (1 Kings 10:2, 10; 2 Kings 20:13; Proverbs 27:9; Isaiah 3:24).
Perfumes were put on clothes and sprinkled on couches (Psalm 45:8; Song of Solomon 4:11; Proverbs 7:17). They also played a significant role in burial rituals. Perfumes were used in embalming and sprinkled on biers or burned at funerals (Genesis 50:2–3, 26; 2 Chronicles 16:14). Nicodemus brought myrrh and aloes to wrap Jesus's body (John 19:39–40). Herod the Great's funeral included 500 slaves carrying spices (Josephus’s Antiquities 17.8.3).
Perfumes in Worship
Besides personal use, oils, perfumes, and incense were used in worship. Holy anointing oil anointed the tabernacle, its furnishings, and Aaronic priests during their induction (Exodus 30:22–25; Psalm 133). Exodus 30:34–35 provides a detailed recipe for sacred incense, well-known in Israel and the ancient East.
Figurative References to Perfumes
The New Testament contains figurative references to perfumes. Christ gave himself as a fragrant offering to God (Ephesians 5:2). The Philippians' gifts to Paul are described as a fragrant offering (Philippians 4:18). The prayers of the saints are like bowls of incense (Revelation 5:8).