In biblical times, agriculture in Palestine was organized into three main forms, similar to how it is today. The focus on each type of agriculture varied based on the society’s social and technological development.
Preview
Herding
Raising livestock is one of the earliest jobs mentioned in the Bible. Abel (Genesis 4:2) and Jabal (Genesis 4:20) were shepherds or had cattle. This job suited their seminomadic lifestyle (moving from place to place), providing both food and clothing with only basic techniques and equipment.
The patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were mainly herdsmen, grazing their sheep and cattle on common land and generally not farming the soil. Jacob and his sons came to Egypt as shepherds (Genesis 47:3). Later, this way of life continued among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh in Transjordan (Numbers 32:1) as well as in some tribes living in the western hills of Palestine (1 Samuel 25:2). Even after settling down, herding remained a part of Hebrew life because the animals could graze on less productive land and because of traditional practices, including the sacrifices made in the temple.
Field Cropping
Most experts believe that the Israelites learned how to farm from the Canaanites because they were in contact with them when they settled in the Promised Land. Although growing grain was known to have existed before then, with Cain being a farmer or “tiller of the soil” (Genesis 4:2), it is unclear what exactly he grew. Archaeologists have found evidence of grain farming dating back to around 6800 BC in the Near East. Isaac sowed grain in Gerar (Genesis 26:12), and Joseph dreamed of sheaves of grain (Genesis 37:6–7). Joseph likely learned more about grain farming from the Egyptians, who grew it on the rich soils of the Nile.
However, it was the Canaanites who taught the Israelites how to grow grain. Joshua and Caleb reported the productivity of Canaan at Kadesh-barnea (Numbers 13:26), and the conquered Canaanites probably helped their conquerors learn farming techniques. This interaction may have also contributed to the Israelites' repeated lapses into idolatry (Judges 9:27). The speed at which they transitioned from a nomadic lifestyle is not clear. Some tribes remained nomadic, but by the time of the kings, many Israelites were farming the land (2 Samuel 14:30).
Wheat was one of the most important crops. Solomon sent large amounts of wheat, along with barley and oil, to Hiram (2 Chronicles 2:10), and it continued to be a major export (Ezekiel 27:17). Barley was the second most important crop. It was the main ingredient in bread early on (Judges 7:13). Later became a significant food for poorer people (John 6:9, 13). It was also used as feed for cattle.
Other field crops included beans and lentils (2 Samuel 17:28), which were ground into meal and sometimes used to make bread (Ezekiel 4:9). Leeks, garlic, and onions were grown for flavoring, while cumin, coriander, dill, mint, rue, and mustard were used as spices. Flax was important (Joshua 2:6). Some cotton was grown (Isaiah 19:9). Wool was used to supplement fiber supplies. By Roman times, cotton had become more important than flax.
Fruit Raising
Once the Israelites settled down, they began planting orchards and vineyards, which became symbols of prosperity. Vineyards produced wine for drinking, while olive orchards provided oil used in cooking, cosmetics, and medicine. They also grew figs and pomegranates. Growing these crops required more skill and equipment compared to earlier farming practices.
Cultivating
Throughout biblical times, much of the farming work was done by the farmers themselves. To start planting, they had to clear the land of forests (Joshua 17:18), stones (Isaiah 5:2), weeds, and thorns. Sometimes they terraced hilly land or used irrigation. These tasks limited farm sizes, so only wealthy individuals like Job and Boaz could have large farms.
To till the land, farmers used oxen or cows to pull very basic plows (Judges 14:18; Amos 6:12). Occasionally donkeys was used (Deuteronomy 22:10). They broke up clods with a hoe or a goad, and smoothed the surface by dragging a simple harrow, which might have been a thornbush or a stoneboat. Seeds were sown by hand, either carefully in furrows or spread over the surface and then lightly covered with the harrow or stoneboat. Weeds were controlled with the plow, harrow, or hoe.
Farm tools changed little during biblical times. The plow was a simple J-shaped piece of hardwood attached to oxen at one end and held by the driver at the other end. This basic tool could only break up four to five inches (10 to 13 centimeters) of soil. After the Exodus, iron was used for the plow tip (1 Samuel 13:20), which mainly helped reduce wear.
Fertilizer use was very limited on Palestinian farms. The law required fields to lie fallow every seventh year to help replenish the soil's water and nutrients. Manuring fields was uncommon because dung was primarily used as fuel. However, the Bible mentions some use of dung around trees (Luke 13:8). The Mishnah notes the use of wood ashes, leaves, animal blood, and oil scum as fertilizers.
Harvesting
Seeding was done at the start of the rainy season, and harvesting began at the end. Harvesting typically lasted at least seven weeks. Some crops, like pulses, were pulled up by the roots, while others, like some grains, were dug with a hoe. Most crops, however, were cut with a sickle. Archaeologists have found iron sickles, some with flint flakes set into the cutting edges. The harvested grain was tied into sheaves (Psalm 126:6) and stacked into heaps to be taken to the threshing floor. Barley was harvested first, followed by wheat.
Small quantities of grain, dill, cumin, and other small crops were beaten out with a flail (Judges 6:11; Ruth 2:17). Most grain was threshed on a floor elevated to let the wind blow away the chaff. The common method involved spreading the loosened straw on the floor and driving oxen over it to release the grains. Sometimes heavy tools weighted with stones were drawn over the straw (Isaiah 28:27; 41:15). These tools were ridden by the driver. The resulting chaff was separated from the grain through a process called winnowing, where the mixture was tossed into the air with a fork or shove (Isaiah 30:24; Jeremiah 15:7). The lighter chaff was blown away, while the heavier grain fell to the ground. The chaff was either burned or used as animal feed. The grain was sifted (Amos 9:9), gathered into heaps, and later stored in covered pits in the field (Jeremiah 41:8). Sometimes it was stored in granaries (Deuteronomy 28:8).